The painters' encyclopaedia, containing definitions of all important words in the art of plain and artistic painting
by Franklin B. Gardner
PREFACE.
The general character of this book is indicated by its title. The several topics are treated with a view to technically instruct those who desire to make a study of the art of painting as practised in the paint-shops and studios of the United States.
Every effort has been made to ensure scientific accuracy in all the statements made. The knowledge acquired during a close connection with the business for thirty-five years is embodied in these pages. The employment of engravings, wherever it was deemed necessary to more fully explain the letter-press, will be found to add greatly to the value of the work as an instructor, while the many extended articles, mostly original, will, it is believed, be interesting even to those who read only for pleasure, or for information on general topics.
Care has been taken to make the book one easy of consultation, virtually, a Dictionary in one alphabet, readily distinguishable from a collection of exhaustive treatises, and as such it is submitted by
THE AUTHOR.
THE PAINTERS' ENCYCLOPEDIA.
A is the first letter in almost all alphabets, excepting, perhaps, the Ethiopian where it takes the thirteenth place. The Roman alphabet of which the letter press of this book consists, forms the base of all other alphabets used to express the English language. In fact there are but two alphabets in common use, namely : the Gothic and the Roman.
For many years the formation of the letters of the alphabet, based as they were upon the Roman, remained unchanged by sign writers and engravers ; that is, the general features of a letter, whether Roman, Gothic, Antique or one of varieties of ornamental letters, would be used and no endeavors be made to add to or detract therefrom ; but of late 3 7 ears there seems to be no end to the shapes given to letters, and in many cases this is so -extra vaguntly carried on, that the original form of the letter is lost, and one is obliged to study a line well before the words can be read. This is due, principally to type founders and letter cutters, who, in order to increase their sales invent "new styles," for which a demand is soon
6 ABSORBENT GROtTNft.
created, as is the custom of the hatter, with his spring and summer styles. (See Lettering.)
Absorbent Ground. A term given by painters to a water-color mixture, which is laid upon canvas or wood, which at once imbibes the oil of subsequent coats of oil paint, leaving the colors in which the design is made dry and brilliant. Artists who work on silk and satin grounds, spread the oil from their tubes upon blotting paper to allow the oil to be absorbed then mix it upon their palette with spirits of turpentine.
In carriage and car painting, the principal aim is to make the foundation as non-absorptive as possible, so that the oil of subsequent coats will remain and oxidize with pigment as it was applied.
Accidental Colors. Those colors which depend on the affections of the eye. Thus, if we look for some time upon a piece of yellow cloth, and suddenly turn the eye from it, we will see the color of indigo ; red will give green, and so on. (See Complimentary Colors.)
Adulteration. The adulteration of pigments and vehicles for paint is carried on to a great extent by unprincipled dealers, and great care should be taken to purchase only from reliable tradesmen, which, though not a certainty against adulteration, will at least lessen the chances of imposition.
White lead may be adulterated with barytes, the bane of all paints. Lakes, blues, and in short all the stock of the paint shop may be tampered with. It is not supposed that every painter is chemist enough to detect the true from the false,
ADULTERATION. 7
but where there is doubt he may try the following-:
To know when white lead is pure, rub a little of it in the fingers and throw it on a piece of live charcoal ; if pure the ivhole of it will turn a yellowish hue, and in a few minutes will take the form of metallic globules; but if adulterated there will be a residue of white earthy matter.
To detect vermilion, place a little on a red-hot iron, if pure it will evaporate entirely ; if not, there will be a residue of white earthy matter.
Chrome yellow may be tested by pouring a little nitric v acid upon it ; if it effervesces, it is adulterated ; if it does not, it is pure.
Genuine indigo will burn.
Ultramarine is not affected by nitric acid when adulterated ; but if pure it will lose its color completely.
The cost of genuine white lead and other colors can readily be obtained by consulting any of the numerous trade j ournals . The colors desired being determined, one can form an approximate estimate of what they should cost simply ground in pure linseed oil, and any offer of "pure paint" at a price which the cost for raw material precludes should be carefully avoided. Pay a fair price, and then insist upon a pure article.
While it is of great importance that the pigments should be as good and pure as possible, it is even of greater importance that what goes into them should be of the best material and make. The best of paints may, and will, prematurely perish if poor japan or oil is used. A poor paint will wear much longer with good japan and oil, than a good paint with poor japan and oil. The oil and gum used
& AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
in making- japans and varnishes is the "glue" which holds the particles of paint together, and in proportion as these are well made, and of a good material the paint retains its tenacity a longer or shorter time.
In keeping with the flood of poor paints put upon the market by grinders, the varnish men have been called upon for cheap japans and liquid driers, until it has come to pass that these so-called driers can be bought at a price beloAv the actual cost of raw linseed oil or turpentine, the price of gum not considered. Any painter or consumer of paints that stops to consider a moment must know that inferior materials are being used> and the inference is that they are rosin and benzine. Aerial Perspective. An optical term referring- to color in the same manner as the term Linear Perspective refers to form. Distance diminishes the size of an object, and distorts its form so far as all those lines which run in the direction of vision seem to converge and finally to meet. Thus the two rows of houses forming an avenue are sufficient to make the effect of perspective strikingly felt, as they seem to meet each other in some distant point, though in reality they are perfectly parallel. Distance also weakens the color of an object, and under certain circumstances it completely changes it. Thus the green forest and the gray rocks become, at a certain distance, and under certain circumstances, blue, perspective, linear and aerial, and is therefore the me'ans by which painters represent distance. Linear perspective (q. v.) was first fully understood and applied by Michael Angelo in 1475 ; Aerial perspective by Claude Lorain in 1600.
AMARANDA LAKE. 9
Affinity. A chemical term used to denote a kind of attraction by which the particles of different bodies unite. Thus, when an acid and an alkali combine, a new substance is formed called a salt, entirely different in its chemical properties from either an acid or an alkali.
When the ingredients composing- paint are put tog-ether there is a certain species of affinity existing-, but it is not the same affinity known to the chemist. Again there is said to be a certain quality of affinity between coats of varnish or paint applied one over the other, and where this does not exist there will be chipping or flaking of one or more of the coatings, or the whole paint structure may leave the surface over which it was spread.
Alcohol. Highly rectified spirit extracted by simple distillation from various vegetable juices and infusions of a saccharine nature, which have undergone vinous fermentation. Alcohol is the solvent used in making spirit varnishes, although of late years' a similar substance called wood naphtha or wood alcohol has in many cases superseded the pure alcohol.
All-over Patterns. A design of free growth, repeating horizontally and vertically.
Aluminium Leaf. Thin sheets of metal used in place of silver leaf, made from aluminium, a metal which resists oxidation in a great degree. This is called by some " nickel leaf", it is inexpensive and durable.
Amaranda Lake. A color inclining to purple, deriving its name from amaranth, a purple flower which when plucked from its stem is a long time
10 AMARANTH.
fading- or withering-. This lake is said to be very durable, but it is more of an artist's color than for general work.
Amaranth. A color inclining to purple. To make it, tint white with blue and red, then sadden with black.
\massette.-An instrument similar in shape to a palette-knife (q.v.) made of horn or ivory and used by French painters for mixing colors.
Amber. A fossil resin of trees belonging to an order now extinct. It is found in various colors, but chiefly in orange and yellow tints.
Amber Varnish. A varnish made with amber as follows : Having finely pulverized amber, put eight ounces in a vessel containing half a pint of best spirits of turpentine, place the vessel over a fire till the amber is melted ; then add two ounces of powdered shellac and heat again. Keep stirring till the gum is melted, then add to the whole an ounce of cold-drawn linseed oil. Stir all W 7 ell together, strain and it is fit for use.
AMBER VARNISH. Take of amber gum, one pound ; boiled oil (pale), 1 2 ounces ; turpentine, one pint. First, put the amber in an iron vessel and heat it until semi-liquid ; then add the oil, mix thoroughly, remove from the fire and when cooled a little, put in the turpentine. This forms an excellent covering for uncolored wood, as holly or pine, being very pale in color and extremely hard when dry.
AMBER VARNISH (BLACK). Amber gum, one pound ; boiled oil, one-half pint ; asphaltum, 8 ounces ; turpentine, one pint. Melt the gum as before directed, then add the asphaltum previously dissolved in
AMERICAN METHOD. 11
the oil, heat all very hot, then remove from the fire and allow to cool a little, when the turps may be added. Black resin is used in place of the asphaltum by some manufacturers, but the asphaltum is best.
AMBER VARNISH (PALE.) Take five pounds of the pale transparent gum, melt it and add hot clarified linseed oil, two gallons, boil until it stringslike boiling molasses then add four gallons of turpentine. Good drying oil may be used, or driers may be added if desired to dry quickly.
AMBER VARNISH (PALE). Melt 8 ounces of gum, and add one-half gallon of boiled oil, then dilute with turpentine as above mentioned.
American Method of Carriage Painting. The
name given to a system of painting vehicles of any kind wherein certain prepared liquids and paints are used, and certain means adopted for doing the work, by which economy, dispatch, and a uniform excellent quality of results are attained. The system of painting, as here laid down, has received the hearty commendation and adoption of many of the leading carriage and car-builders of both this country and Europe, and we do not hesitate to devote a large amount of space to present our readers with every detail ; giving in most part the directions laid down by the Messrs. Valentine & Company, who manufacture the leading articles used in this method. Supplemented with copious notations by the author of this work.
1. THE PRIMING. The first or priming coat upon wood or iron, is of great importance, for on the durability of the foundation, the durability of
12 AMERICAN METHOD.
the superstructure mainly depends. There are several methods employed for priming work, for which various advantages are claimed. Some think the old Engish method the best consisting of boiled oil and white lead with a little " patent dryer " but few there are who now depend upon that as a priming-, owing to the widespread denunciation of boiled oil in the trade journals. There are but few carriage-builders who could afford to follow the method of painting as done by such men as Thomas Goddard, of Boston, a few years ago. Customers nowadays are unwilling- to wait from six months to a year for the painting of their carriage, and still less willing to pay the price that must follow such a protracted piece of work.
Carriages are now painted in first-class style and manner in from fourteen to twenty days. The principal reason for this, is the use of a priming, which obviates the application of several coats of white lead paint, yet forms a solid but elastic foundation. Priming must possess the following qualities in order to insure good and durable work : Penetrativeness, that it may enter the pores of the wood and help to fill them ; adhesiveness, that it will remain firm in the pores, and not chip or flake and fly off; compactness, that it may form sufficient body to hold up the subsequent coats, and prevent the absorption of moisture ; elasticity or toughness, to prevent the chipping, peeling or flaking of after-coats ; and uniform consistency, that all parts may be done in an easy and uniform manner. Of the many primings now in use by the leading carriage painters of this country are permanent wood
AMERICAN METHOD. 13
filling (of which more anon), and white lead and raw oil.
It is claimed, on the one hand, that paint, no matter what the composition maybe, simply forms a coating- on the surface of wood or iron, and protects only so long as it remains uninjured, which period of time would be shortened were it not for the varnish coats which protect the paint. Now, the oil absorbed from the point is trifling in comparision with the amount required to fill the pore, and prevent further absorption. Beside this, the volatility of turpentine and oil, after they have entered the pores, causes them to evaporate, to some extent, and to leave, under the coating of paint, empty and hungry pores, which are so often the cause of "chipping" and "flaking"; "striking in" or "loss of luster" in the varnish coats, owing, without doubt, to the absorption of the oil from subsequent coats by this porous under-ground.
2. LINSEED OIL AS A PRIMER. Linseed oil, although classed among the fat oils, possesses the quality of penetration to a very great extent ; indeed too much so, to have much value as a priming when used alone. It has been found that when the outer surface of such a priming has thickened, and become partially dry, by the absorption of oxygen, the under part is still soft, and is sucked more or less into the pores of the wood ; but having no great body or filling qualities, it does not permanently stop them. It is evident that the presence of turpentine would not help to remedy this defect on the part of the oil, but would only increase it.
3. THE QUESTION OF TIME. As we have before mentioned, the question of time is one of great impor-
14 AMERICAN METHOD.
tance nowadays. Now, the method of filling- the pores of the wood with numerous coats of white lead and oil paint, will no doubt produce durability, provided that proper care is taken, and plenty of time given for each coat to dry thoroughly before the next is applied. But to do this is difficult where the work is at all done in a hurry; and if one coat is imperfectly dried or preceded or followed by coats of varying elasticity, there is liable to be trouble.
This demand for speedy work, coupled with the known difficulty of turning out a quick job in white lead priming and filling which should be durable, was the means of calling out the modern method of carriage painting, known as the " Piotrowski method," after the inventor of the Priming. Walerian Piotrowski ; and afterwards christened by the author of this book "The American Method of Carriage Painting." Which we will now briefly describe.
4. PRIMING CARRIAGE AND CAK BODIES. Permanent Wood Filling, the universal priming, is supplied by the manufacturers, Messrs. Valentine & Company of New York, in proper condition for immediate use. It is a liquid of about the same consistency as varnish, in two grades of color, "light" and "dark"; the former being almost colorless is used, principally, for work which is to be painted in light colors ; the latter being of a black-walnut color is used on any work where color is no object. This is excellent for staining pine and other soft woods to imitate hard wood. The general character of the two are the^ same, the only difference being in the color. There should be nothing added to the P. W. F. but, if it appears
AMERICAN METHOD. 15
too thick, in case of very cold weather, it may be turned into a tin vessel and warmed in a kettle of hot water. When the body -is completed by the wood-worker, the painter gives it a thorough dusting- inside and out, and proceeds to " prime it." Pouring from the can a small quantity of P. W. F. (it does not require much to coat a body, as one gallon will, if rightly used, go over a surface of from 800 to 1000 square feet of whitewood or pine), with an ordinary paint brush perfectly clean, or one kept for the purpose, and not used for paint, he coats over a portion of the body, say : the back, or one side, taking no great pains to spread it evenly, he may daub it on, then, immediately wipe over and rub in every part with rags (cheap calico or muslin torn in pieces). This rubbing with rags spreads the priming evenly, and forces it into the pores. Go on in this manner until the whole is done, over wood and iron alike, leaving no surface coat as of paint or varnish, the hand should scarcely be soiled or greased if passed over a finished portion of the work. The canvassed parts inside, if any, may be painted with slush paint, for they would absorb a great amount of P. W. F. with no corresponding benefit. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the painter desiring to make a successful use of the P. W. F., that it must be put on sparingly and be well tviped or rubbed into all parts of the work, and that only one coat should be applied.
The body should now be set aside to dry, and forty-eight hours should be given, unless the weather is favorable, when the time may be shortened to 36, and even to 24 hours without detriment, There will be a thin film covering the
16 AMERICAN METHOD.
hard parts of the wood, and the iron work, and the P. W. F. being- composed principally of oil and a gummy or filling 1 substance will have entered the pores and sealed them against the entrance of dampness or the liquids from subsequent coats of paint.
5. PRIMING THE WHEELS AND UNDER PARTS. When the wheels, beds, bars, etc., are finished by the wheelwright, and before the grain of the wood is raised by the atmosphere, a coat of P. W. F. is put on over every part in the same manner as the body, wiping it well with rags ; being careful to
v coat the bottom of bars, tread of wheels, etc., for this material is a bar to all dampness, and will thus render the work more durable. This preliminary coat is not properly the priming, for it is put on to prevent the grain of the wood from absorbing oil and dirt from the smith's hands, and to prevent the rims or felloes from swelling with the water used in putting on the tires. When the ironing is completed, every part of the wood is sandpapered and filed down until nothing but clean wood and iron are seen, and every trace of P. W. F. is removed from the surface for the preliminary coat has fulfilled its mission.
The preparation of the gears at this stage, is the main operation, for if they are well done, but little labor remains to be accomplished. The priming is now in order 2 and going over every part with P. W. F. in the same manner as at first, this is soon ready for standing aside to dry. The wood pores are sealed up, the surface of the wood has a thin film covering it as also the ironwork, and a more tenacious coating is not easily found. The time employed so far upon the gears
AMERICAN METHOD. 17
has been trifling-, compared to the old-fashioned method of filling- up with with white lead and oil, which we will now describe :
6. WHITE LEAD PRIMING. White lead, the base or foundation, should be pure, but dealers have many means of adulterating- it with sulphate of baryta, or barytes (a native ore), gypsum, or plaster-of-paris and carbonate of lime, or common chalk, all of which are detrimental. Linseed oil, the purest raw oil, also, should be used, but this is often adulterated with menhaden (fish) oil, or cotton-seed oil, and who can tell when the materials he uses are pure ? Having- secured what is supposed to be pure and that from a w T ell-known responsible maker we will suppose to be, the next requisite is pure black, in order to form a gray or lead color. With these ingredients the priming is formed. The white lead is beat up with the raw oil until of a paint-like consistency, then a little of the black is added to form a clean lead color. Some add driers, such as Brown Japan or Japan Gold size, but many prefer to use none whatever. The priming- thus made is now spread on the wood, and with a self-satisfactory air the painter runs the job out on the dr^angshed or other convenient place to dry. The oil of the priming- gradually leaves the pigments white lead and black and seeks the interior of the wood, sucked in, as it were, by capillary^ attraction, and the pigments are thus virtually strained and left upon the surface in a semi-dry porous state while the oil that entered the wood, not being a gummy or filling substance, stains the interior of each little pore only so much for the priming ! Next, a coat of white lead and oil
18 AMERICAN METHOD.
of similar consistency is put over it. The oil from this coat is drank in by the porous pigments, through which it passes and spreads itself over the stain which the first coat gave to the pores, and the second coat pigments are strained and left porous, so on until possibly (if a good job is to be made), five coats of "lead color " is given ; by which time the pores may have become filled by the successive layers of oil, and the pigment on the surface too, is finally cemented together or partially so. This is called the foundation, and it was the only known way to paint a carriage for many years.
The time consumed was enormous to our modern views ; weeks were allowed the coatings to dry, days were passed in sandpapering, and finally, in order to meet the demand for quicker work, the number of coats were lessened with a corresponding decrease in durability, for no matter what is put upon the surface, if of a liquid nature, the wood will absord it, and unless it has power to close those hungry pores, absorption will go on.
ANTI- ABSORPTION is the key-note of the American method of painting.
7. ROUGH-STUFF. The leveling or rough-stuff coats consist of a coarse mineral paint, designed to level down or fill up all imperfections in the surface of the carriage body (it is not used on gears), such as plane and file marks, brad holes, etc.
The pigment is mixed with oil, japan varnish and turpentine, and although the painter may have a good recipe for this paint, and may mix it himself, he cannot rely upon getting exactly the same amount of elasticity at one time as at another time ? if mixed in small quantities. There-
AMERICAN METHOD. 10
fore the ready-prepared paint, mixed from a formula, which experience and careful tests have proved best, and mixed in large quantities by weight and measure is by far the surest and safest to use. Valentine & Company's ground rough-stuff is thus prepared, and it will also harmonize and assimilate with the priming of P. W. F. best, for it is mixed with the same grade and make of linseed oil. The P. W. F. priming on the body being dry, it only requires a good dusting when it is ready for the rough-stuff. This for the first coat should have a very little raw oil added to make it more in keeping with the elastic priming, and it must not be spread too thick ; thick coats are apt to show brush marks, and brush marks in the rough-stuff will show in the finishing varnish. Put the rough-stuff on smoothly, and set the body away for 48 hours to harden, or, if preferred, when 24 hours have passed the largest holes may be puttied part full, then give the other 24 hours for drying.
The second, third and fourth coats of roughstuff may be put on one day apart, then a thin coat of stain, to guide the workman while rubbing, say some yellow ochre or other cheap pigment mixed in japan and turpentine, may be added.
Rough-stuff will always give better satisfaction when applied in a medium thin coat. It is entirely against common-sense to plaster on a great mass of this paint, with the desire to level the work quickly better by far to put on extra coats.
The rubbing of the rough-stuff, being a purely mechanical operation, we will describe under its proper head " Rubbing".
I AMERICAN METHOD.
When the work of rubbing* is completed, the body should be washed clean, and well dried off with a chamois skin; then set aside for the evaporation of moisture from the porous paint.
This "drying- out" is of vital importance, and should never be neglected.
Rough-stuff, providing it is good-rubbing roughstuff, is necessarily porous, no matter what pigment or vehicle is used, and a portion of the water used in rubbing is absorbed by it; therefore it is essential, after the moisture has all been evaporated, that the pores be closed, in order that the oil of subsequent coats may not be absorbed by them.
It is the aim in this system of painting to form a non-absorptive surface, and it will be seen that if the P. W.F. closed up the pores of the wood, it will assuredly close up the pores of the leveling paint ; therefore, a coating is applied to the rubbed surface of paint in the same manner as in priming the wood, i. e., wiping off all that will readily leave the surface, thus rendering the paint elastic, yet proof against the entrance of oil from all subsequent coats of color or of varnish. 8. COLORING THE BODY. The P. W. F. put on over the rough-stuff having been allowed from 24 to 48 hours for drying; the coloring is now in order. The surface must not be disturbed by sandpaper, but a simple dusting off may be necessary. It is customary with some painters to lay on a ground coat of some color corresponding w r ith the color they intend to make the job, but this is more to economize time in making a solid job and to save expensive color, and with the exception of a few extra fine or transparent colors, which are inten-
AMERICAN METHOD. 21
sified or made more brilliant by application over particular grounds, the color proper may be laid directly on the prepared surface.
For black, either lampblack or Valentine's Royal or coach black may be used for the first coat, having- sufficient oil in the mixture to cause an egg-shell gloss, lay it on with a camel' s-hair brush and give, say 12 hours for drying.
To better illustrate the painting of a body, we will take, for example, a job to be painted a dark green, which is a standard color and one of the most durable colors used in carriage work, and carry it through to the finish. The panels only are to be put in color, the remainder to be black. Our first duty is -to prepare a ground or preparation coat, and the following will be found a good formula :
# . To produce a dark green ground, mix lampblack and chrome yellow, with Crown coach japan and turpentine to a proper consistency for grinding in the mill approximating as nearly as possible the desired shade of green. When ground add a tablespoonful of raw oil to a pint of paint, and when well stirred together test its drying qualities by spreading a little on the thumb-nail and blowing upon it to hasten evaporation, if it dries "dead" add a few drops of oil or rubbing varnish, or if too glossy add turpentine until an egg-shell gloss is obtained.
This ground work or preparation coat should be put on with a camel 's-hair brush as smoothly as can be, allowing no laps or brush marks to remain visible.
The black portions are next to be done, and this paint may be mixed in the same manner as the
22 AMERICAN METHOD.
green of lampblack or ivory black. When all is coated set the job aside to dry until the next day, at which time it should be well inspected and if any scratches or indentations are found, soft dark putty must be used to till them, then rub over gently with No. 1 sandpaper, partly worn, to prepare it for the color proper dark green and ivory black. The dark green may be made as follows :
5. Pulverize, on the stone, some Dutch pink, and mix it with half and half japan gold size and turpentine and grind it fine. Then mix in the same manner some Prussian blue and grind it into another cup. Now, little by little, add the blue to the Dutch pink, stirring it constantly, until the desired shade of green is obtained, and temper the mixture with raw oil in the same manner as explained for the ground coat. Apply with camel 'shair brush. The black parts may now receive another coat of ivory or drop black. If readymixed colors are used, instead of mixing them as above, take Valentine's royal green for the green parts, and jet black for the black portions, tempering them as described with oil.
It is the usual custom to make color-and- varnish by adding to a partly filled cup of varnish a little color ; but it is considered best by some of the firstclass painters to grind the dry pigment directly in varnish, and thus overcome the objection to the oil and turpentine in the color-and- varnish. However, in the work before us, we desire to produce a rich or deep shade of green, and to carry out the plan, we will glaze the color, instead of putting on color-and-varnish, in its ordinary mixture. Yellow lake possesses the power, when used for a glazing over green, to increase the intensity or
AMERICAN METHOD. 23
depth of the color, and many handsome shades are made in that way. It may be mixed as follows :
$ . Pulverize the lumps and mix it in hard-drying 1 body varnish; grind fine, then add a very little of the Dutch pink color. Stir well and apply with badger-hair varnish brushes.
The black parts are now ready for color-andvarnish and we desire as in the case of the panels a first-class black ; so instead of using ordinary color-and-varnish, we will employ black japan (which see). Three coats of this well rubbed with pulverized pumice between each coat, will give a good, jet-black surface for finishing over.
The glazed panels having been rubbed lightly with pumice-stone, and a coat of hard drying* l>ody varnish given, at the time the black japan was applied, the whole is now ready for a final rubbing down and finishing coat of wearing body varnish.
9. THE GEARS. We left the gears with the priming of P. W. F., and after 24 hours we may apply either a thin coat of lampblack color, or a thin lead color, the object of which is to see the open grain and imperfection so that putty may be used to plaster over and fill them. The surface of the P. W. F. must not be tabbed, the paint should be applied as smoothly as possible, for no great amount of sandpapering is to be done. Putty all imperfections after the paint has dried, which will be perhaps 48 hours, for this first coat over the P. W. F. should be a little more oily than is necessary in any other coatings.
When the putty is dry, gently rub over with fine sandpaper, but don't cut through the paint. When done, dust off, apply the color and color-
24 AMERICAN METHOD.
and-varnish, as usual, moss down, give a second coat of color-and-varnish, rub this latter with pumice-powder, wash off, stripe, and give a coat of clear elastic leveling varnish, let dry, rub again and finish with elastic gear varnish.
This completes the work of the American method, and we believe any one at all acquainted with painting will readily see the correctness of our theory, regarding absorption, and be enabled by our description of how the work is done, to - give it practical test in his workshop. We add on opposite page a synopsis of the method showing the time consumed in doing a piece of work.
American Vermilion. A pigment made from white lead and bichromate of potash. These are boiled together, washed, filtered, pressed, dried and pulverized, either with rollers or with the hand. It must not be rubbed so hard as to break the crystals, or it will lose its color and show what it really is orange chrome. American vermilion is greatly inferior to that known as English vermilion (which see), but for ordinary work such as wagons and trucks it answers a good purpose. It should never be ground in the paint-mill.
Amethyst. A purple or violet color used by artists in emblazoning the arms of English nobility.
Ammonia. A volatile alkali, which is a deadly enemy of varnish. It is an important chemical compound in the form of a transparent, colorless and pungent gas. The name was probably derived from the temple of Ammon in Libya, Africa, near which the chloride of ammonium was first made from the soot produced by burning camels' dung. It is now obtained as a by-product in the distilla-
AMERICAN METHOD. 25
SYNOPSIS
AMERICAN METHOD ON BODIES.
1st day, Apply P. W. F., and wipe off, For drying give 48 hours.
3d " First coat of rough-stuff a little oily, - " 48 "
5th " 2d " " ordinary, - " 24 "
6th " 3d " " " - " 24 "
7th " 4th It is a well-known fact among carriage-makers that the largest share of the work they turn out is ruined by ammonia, and yet it seems impossible for them to educate their customers carriage owners up to that point, where judgment in the housing of a carriage is needed. Stables are fitted up with a view to prevent the ammonia from the horses getting into the carriage house, and after all their care in this respect as they think communication is made between stable and carriage house by doors, which are frequently ajar. The manure is in some cases carted through the room, and we have known of cases where a drain from the stable carding off the liquid excresences, passed under the floor of the carriage house, and, connecting with the drain from the washing floor within, sent up unrestrained the very enemy they
AMMONIA. 27
had sought to. exclude. The odor of ammonia is very strong", and yet there may be a sufficient quantity in the air to affect the varnish, but not sufficient to be readily discovered by the smell. Livery stables are, as a rule, thoroughly impregnated with ammoniacal gas, and here it is that much city work is destroyed, unthought of. The action of the gas is said to be, by an eminent chemist, as follows : The gas rises and having an affinity for almost everything, settles in the form of a powder upon each mite of dust floating in the atmosphere. The dust settles to its resting place, possibly some part of a well-painted carriage, and carries with it the ammonia, which, so long as it remains dry, is inactive, but so soon as the least dampness or moisture strikes it, the enemy begins its work annihilating the life of the varnish oil. Thus it is where a carriage standing in a poorly contrived house, and used daily (with frequent washing 1 or run out in damp weather), will show the effects of ammonia much quicker than another carriage standing unused in the same room. The effects of ammonia on a varnished surface is, first, a dullness or loss of lustre upon parts exposed to falling dust ; those parts, such as the slanting side of the seat ; the sides just under the seat skirt, etc., will appear as bright as ever; second, a million fine lines or minute cracks running in every direction, next a dry whitish powder which may be rubbed off with the hand, and finally the utter decay of varnish and possibly paint. Large cracks are seldom caused by ammonia, it is a gradual eating away of the oily portion of the material, leaving the gum to be rubbed or washed away. Various plans have been tried to arrest the ris-
ANGLE FITCH.
ing 1 of ammoniacal gas in stables, one of which being- the sprinkling of chloride of lime around the floor, and said to form with ammonia, chloride of ammonia or sal ammoniac, which is not volatile, but we have never known of a case where a cure was effected. The sure way is to keep all varnished work, such as carriages, in a separate building, which should be dry and moderately warm, for cold will affect varnish almost as badly as ammonia.
Angle Fitch. A small, flat brush with the hair or bristles placed at an angle with the handle, used by decorators in running lines or stripes on flat surfaces.
Anglo Japanese Work. Ornamented work done with autumn leaves, fastened by gum or cement to a painted surface. An old workbox or other like article is coated with ivory black, ground in brown japan to dry quickly, after which autumn leaves are laid on and gummed securely in the order desired. When dry the w r hole is varnished with several coatings of carriage rubbing varnish.
Aniline Black Varnish. The French have recently brought out a beautiful black varnish made as follows : Dissolve 7 drachms of antique blue, 2 drachms fuchsine, 5 drachms napthaline yellow, in one quart alcohol. One application is sufficient to render any object an ebony black.
Aniline Colors. Aniline was discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben, as a product of the distillation of
FIG. 1.
ANGLE FITCH BRUSH.
ANTIQUE PAINTING. 29
indigo. It attracted immediate attention from chemists, was made the subject of many researches, which contributed greatly to enlarge the facts and theories of modern chemistry. But it did not acquire any commercial importance till 1856, when W. H. Perkins prepared from it the beautiful purple dye mauve.
The brilliancy and intensity of this color attracted the attention of chemists and dyers, and in a short time an entirely new series of colors was discovered by which the art of dyeing has been almost revolutionized. Attempts have been made to introduce colors made for the painter from analine, but so far they have proved extremely fugitive.
Antimony Yellow. Yellow pigments formed by a compound of the oxides of lead and antimony. The principal one of these yellows is Naples yellow, a soft shade of canary color, and one frequently used for panel colors on carriages and sleighs. It is extremely hard to grind either upon the stone or in a mill, and resort is had by some painters to soften the lumps by placing the pigment in a tin vessel having holes in the bottom and pouring water upon it. The water is absorbed, and when the superabundant water has drained through the holes, the pigment is placed upon a board or table to dry ; after which it is found to crush and grind easily.
There are many other pigments which may be treated in a similar manner, but in every case care should be taken that all moisture has evaporated before mixing the pigment for paint.
Antique Painting. A name frequently used in the place of transferring (which see) .
oO ANTWERP BLUE.
Antwerp Blue. Also called, Haarlem, Berlin, or Mineral blue. A pigment similar to Prussian blue, but of a lighter color and brighter. Tube color of this blue is preferred by artists to Prussian blue on account of its durability. Prussian blue is a fugitive color, in artists' work.
Antwerp Brown. A mixture of asphaltum and drying oils which is less liable to the troubles, such as cracking, chipping, etc., than the ordinary asphaltum of the dealer. Bituminous coal and bituminous ochres, peat or bog earth afford similar browns, and these too are often added to the asphaltum solution, it is seldom used on carriage work.
Arabesque. A peculiar kind of fantastic decoration as its name implies after the Arabian manner commonly employed in architecture, and which Spanish Moors are supposed to have introduced into modern Europe. Arabesque consists usually of combinations of plants, birds and animals of all kinds, including the human figure, and embracing not only every natural variety, but stepping without hesitation beyond the bounds of nature. Raphael's arabesques which adorned the Vatican, are said to be the most beautiful and the most famous which the modern world has produced. Many of the designs sold as transfers or decalcomanie are of this order, and there could scarcely be anything more appropriate for sleighs and wagon work.
Architrave. Moldings enclosing door or w r indow, and also next beneath a frieze.
Armenian Blue. The ancients employed a species of ultramarine, and called also by them Cyan us,
ASPHALTUM. 31
which was extremely durable and of an expensive character. The blue now labeled American, is simply an imitation.
Arsenical Green. A pigment similar to Scheele's green, Mitis green, Paris green, etc., all being, simply, the arsenite of copper.
Arsenic Yellow. A pigment prepared from arsenic fluxed with litharge and then powdered. It is similar to orpiment (q. v.) in color, but not being affected by lead it is not so liable to change in tint. All tints, however, of white fead are destroyed by arsenic colors.
Asphaltum. Called also bitumen, mineral pitch, Jews' pitch. It is found in a natural state upon the shores of the Dead sea, and from which that expanse of water takes the name of Asphaltic Lake ; and is also found as a residue in the distillation of various resins and bituminous matters, in preparing essential oils. Asphaltum is principally dissolved in spirits of turpentine and is sold by the retailer at a low price. Its fine brown transparency lures to its free use in shading on gold, notwithstanding the rapid destruction which awaits the work on which it is much employed, owing to its disposition to crack by changes of temperature and the atmosphere, but for which it would be a most beautiful pigment.
For shading gold scrolling, it is best to add one-third burnt sienna tube color, which lends a warmer hue to the shade, and adds durability. The manner of working the asphaltum shading, may here be mentioned. The gilding being completed, give it a coat of rubbing varnish, for if the shade be put upon unvarnished gold, a portion
32 ASPHALTUM.
will be absorbed and the work will appear cloudy or ' 'muddy," a feature which the varnish prevents; beside, when the gold has been varnished over there will be no trouble in wiping off any of the shade that is not correct or desirable.
The varnish coat being dry, remove the gloss by rubbing with pumice-stone and water, or curled hair, then with the asphaltum and sienna mixture (as before stated) thinned so it is very transparent simply a glazing with turpentine and liquid drier or japan. Begin. the laying on, using a rather short-haired camel's-hair pencil, putting the shade only where it is required to be darkest ; let it dry, then go over it again and blend off to the light shades, and repeat until the shade is dark enough do not seek to make it too dark a shade. There are movements or "sweeps" of the pencil that cannot be described, one must see the work done to be proficient. Never make an attempt to retouch a spot, or laps will occur and spoil the work.
Black japan as used by the carriage-maker is composed principally of asphaltum gum. And the baking japans of the japanner are also prepared from it.
Asphaltum forms a good stain for changing oak-grained work to black walnut. Simply dilute the asphaltum with rubbing varnish until a glazing is produced, then apply an even coat witfc varnish brushes. Asphaltum was, and maj be still, used by glass sign painters to back up their gold leaf, but its certainty to peel off by atmospheric changes, no matter how it may be mixed, should discourage its use entirely. Asphaltum is a useful paint or lacquer in every carriage
AUREOLIN YELLOW. .33
paint shop for glazing- over " touched up" places on black, before varnishing, and especially is this the case where the ground was made with black japan.
Auburn. A brownish red, made by adding red to raw umber.
Aureolin Ye How. An excellent pigment, not acted upon by lime or potash and therefore extensively used for fresco and silicious painting. It is extremely permanent, and is not affected by admixture with other colors.
B
B. The second letter of the English alphabet, consisting of a vertical bar joined to two semi-circles. The lower circle of the letter is made a trifle larger than the top circle, although this is not so noticeable when the letter is in proper position, as it is when it is turned over or " upside down." This is done to give a perfect balance to the letter, for if the upper and lower semi-circles were alike, the letter would appear as if it could easily be pushed over. As it is, it stands firmly and presents a bold appearance.
Back-ground. That part of a picture which represents the extreme distance, or the space behind a group of figures.
Backing. In painting or gilding on glass, that which is to appear on the front of the glass is, when dry coated upon the back, called backing or " backing up". It was the practice some years ago to back up gold letters with asphaltum, owing to its quick drying and glossy properties, but experience has proved that this is a very bad proceeding, the asphaltum being extremely fugitive. A mixture of lamp-black and varnish with some oil added is far superior as a backing in fact any oil paint will answer a good purpose.
Badger. An animal very similar to a bear, inhabiting most parts of Europe, Asia and North
BAKING JAPAN. 35
America; one species found in this country is called the ground hog-. The hairs or bristles of this animal are made into brushes for painters.
A large proportion of the so-called badger-hair brushes are made with a mixture of white skunk and hog hair. Even in the badger-hair there is a difference in quality ; the winter killed animals produce the best hair, and that which grows down the back is decidedly the best and liveliest, and makes a brush that will give perfect satisfaction and outwear those made of inferior stock. These brushes, preferred by the best workmen for varnishing on carriage bodies to the fitch-hair (q. v.) brush, from the fact that they hold or carry more varnish, possess more spring or elasticity, and the hair is not apt to break and give annoyance in varnishing as is the case with the fitch.
Badger Softener. A brush made of badger-hair, for use in softening or blending the marks made in graining various woods.
Baking Japan. A composition of asphaltum or Jews' pitch (q. v+), used for giving color and a gloss at the same time to any surface capable of withstanding a strong heat, as hardware tools, machinery, etc. A baking japan should be made with a view to certain adaptions, as for example, a japan exactly suited for tinware and goods of that description which requires a temperature of say 120 degrees Fah. to properly bake, would be entirely inappropriate for grates and fenders and other iron goods which are to be exposed to rough usage, or, perhaps, to a considerable degree of heat while in use. The latter work needs an oven at about 500 degrees Fah., in which it will harden
36 BAKING JAPAN.
in about twenty minutes, if the work is well prepared, while at the temperature requisite for the other class of goods, it will not harden and become durable though baked for days. On the other hand, the japan exactly suitable for the lighter goods would be burned and irretrievably injured at this high heat. Consumers will learn from this hint, if they have not already learned from experience, that it is of the utmost importance for them to let the varnish manufacturer or dealer know exactly what uses his japans are required for, in order to be supplied with the kind adapted to the particular work in hand. Much vexation would be saved if japanners would follow the rule of procuring different and suitable brands of japan for their different kinds of work, and much vexation will be caused if they neglect to do so ; and persist in the common habit of coating lunch boxes with the same coating they apply to piano plates and sewing machines. Another cause of bad results is the tendency on the part of the employes and even of the boss himself, no matter how intelligent, to tamper with the composition of the best adapted stock by thinning, thus rendering it entirely unfit for the use intended or indeed for any other. A good japan for cast-iron work, we will say, is composed of certain ingredients in certain proportions, these ingredients always bearing the same relation to each other, and each being as necessary as the others to perfect the mass. Among these ingredients, glutinous matters form no inconsiderable part. Now, when a japan exactly adapted to its use in this wa}^ is applied to a piece of iron and afterward submitted to an appropriate degree of heat, to the mind of the uneducated artisan it ap-
BAKING JAPAN. 37
pears to simply dry and form a glossy and enduring- coating on the surface of the metal. Really, however, the process is a much more complicated one. In the first place the heat applied to the metal opens the pores of that metal, at the same time rarifying and expelling the air contained in those pores. Then the coating applied, rendered more than ordinarily fluid by the same heat sinks into and fills up the apertures thus opened and rendered vacant, and the consequence is that the japan not only sticks to the surface of the iron, as it is said to do in common parlance* but it is absolutely rooted thereto by myriads of invisible but tenacious roots which extend down into its very body.
Next comes the cooling process in which the pores return to their former size, gripping these roots more firmly as they contract until the film on its exterior is held to the metal almost as rigidly as though it were a part and parcel thereof.
The case viewed in this light, it will not be difficult for anyone to comprehend what the result will be where the character of the japan is altered by the unguarded addition of turpentine or oil.
The question at once arises, how should our japans be liquified when of too firm a consistency ? Precluded from the use of turpentine, our standard resort, and also of oil, what shall be used for thinning? We answer, use baking copal varnish which has properties which not only render it the best thinner at present known, but which has other properties which fit it to properly anchor the japan to the metal. Having prepared the japan for use, the next necessity also a very important one is to have the surface of the metal in a pro-
38 BAKING JAPANS.
per state ; particularly to have it cleaned from all substances which will prevent the coating- from taking- hold, such as animal oils, coal oil, or other extraneous matters,
In reg-ard to the number of coats necessary to the production of good work, a great deal depends upon the nature of the metal to be covered. Lead, and some compositions, for example, require a priming 1 of lamp-black and oil, while others can be effectively manipulated without extra labor by one application and one heat. Where more than one application of japan is requisite, let the first be thinner than those to succeed it, in order that it may properly sink in and clinch and form a bed for the others. It should also be baked at a higher temperature than the others, as there should be no material softening- of this ' coat wiien once fixed. This will also avoid the expulsion, on the second baking-, of any vapors from it through the other, thereby preventing- bubbling, blistering-, cracking and porousness of the outer layer. There was a time when it was considered absolutely necessary to forestall all japans with a priming of the nature of that above mentioned, but happily the developments incident to experience and progress have enabled varnish manufacturers to so improve upon ancient modes of manufacture that they are enabled now to furnish the tradesman with a stock which will produce the desired effect, except upon the substances alluded to, without the necessitj^ of this double or treble outlay of time. Banner Work. Painting on canvas and muslin is sometimes a difficult job, but if the paint be properly mixed and the material to be worked on properly prepared there is less difficulty. Stretch
BANNER WORK. 39
the canvas upon a partition or upon the floor, and tack it fast, then lay out the lettering' with white chalk, or very lightly with charcoal, now dash over the whole a plentiful supply of clean water, and with paint mixed with japan and turpentine (no oil) proceed with the work ; a flat bristle pencil is excellent for outlining-, filling- in with a larg-er brush. A good plan for large letters is to use a strip of tin in the manner of a stencil to form the edge of a letter, then fill in with a large brush. For fine muslin the work may be done with ordinary lettering pencils. Oil color is apt to work badly ; the oil leaves the paint and saturates the canvas around the letters, but japan color will not do so. Some prefer to fill the canvas with starch or flour paste, before lettering, and there are no objections to it that we know of except the loss of time, waiting for the paste to dry.
Stencils may be used to advantage on muslin and canvas work, and we know of painters who have large stencils of letters cut out in pasteboard, which they use for the purpose. Silk and satin require a different mode of operations. Stretch the material upon a wall and secure it well by tacks. Lay out the general plan, as ribbons, border, picture ground, etc., and go overall within the boundaries with size, using a short stiff bristle brush, or a small sponge may be used to advantage, using care not to drop any of the size on parts of the material not to be painted. The size may be made of gelatine, two ounces to a pint of water when the gelatine is dissolved, strain it through coarse muslin, and apply it while still hot. Some prefer to size the silk all over, but it is
40 BARYTA WHITE.
best to do onty that which is to be painted. When the size is dry lay on a coat of white paint to all within the lines, going- to within one-sixteenth of an inch from the edge of the sizing- with the brush. . When the white is dry the work is ready for picture, lettering- or gilding- as desired. The white of an eg-g- is used by some artists for sizing-, while others use coach japan and turpentine.
Baryta White. (Sometimes called constant or permanent white.) A pigment made from "heavy spar", or in other words the sulphate of barium. It is a good white for fresco and water color painting-.
Baryta Yellow. The true Lemon Yellow, made of chromic acid and barium, and sometimes called Yellow Ultramarine.
Bate. The marks in wood, i. e., the grain, knots, eyes, curls, etc., of wood, as in graining-, to imitate various woods.
Bay. One division of a series of panels and pilasters.
Bed-Moldings. Members of a cornice next above the frieze.
Bell of a Capital. The shaft as seen behind the leaves.
Belt or Border. Ornamental stripes put around or through a panel, more particularly used on sleighs. Ornamental belts and borders are supplied in transfer or decalcomanie, and they will be found excellent for hurried work. Many feet of which can be put on in a few minutes more uniform and perfect than any hand- work.
BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. 41
Bice. A light blue color prepared from smalts. By mixing* it with yellow orpiment bice green is formed.
Binary Colors. Compound colors. Those colors which are produced by mixing- the primary colors in pairs ; as orange, produced by mixing- red and yellow ; green, from yellow and blue; violet, from blue and red.
Binding. The cohesion given to particles of paint by liquids ; such as oil, varnish, japan, etc. When the quality known as binding- is gone from paint, the pigment will rub off in a fine dust, and this loss of binding when the paint was properly mixed, is generally due to absorption of the liquids by a porous foundation. (See American Method of Carriage Painting.) If dry pigment be mixed with spirits of turpentine alone, there will be no binding, and as soon as the turpentine has evaporated the color may be brushed off. Oil oxidizes and forms a sort of resin which binds the particles of pigment, but it does not follow that oil (linseed ,oil) must be used in all cases. Varnish, japan, liquid-drier, all of which contain oil as a base, may be used to advantage, and thus the paint be made to dry in a short time. For stains, where water is the medium, a little sugar, molasses, white of an egg, etc., may be added as a binding, while ale beer is preferred as a vehicle by many.
Bird's-eye View. A phrase used among artists to designate the picture of any machine, building, etc., where the spectator is supposed to look from above. The plan of such a picture is parallel to the horizon.
42 BISMAUCK BROWtf.
Bismarck Brown. A mixture of burnt sienna chrome yellow and lake. (See Brown.)
Bistre. This is a brown color used in water-color painting 1 . It is prepared from the root of beechwood. All the insoluble residue, after a thorough washing, is mixed with gum water and formed into cakes.
3itumen. A resinous substance rendered brown by the action of fire. (See Asphaltum.)
Black. The total absorption of all the rays of light constitute black ; on the same principle that white, also an absence of color, is produced by the reflection of all the light. White is pure light, not broken into colors ; black is darkness in which all colors are absorbed. There are several pigments which supply us a black, as lamp-black, ivoryblack, bone-black, etc., which see.
Black-Board Paint. The paint for a black-board on which to use chalk, should be composed of material that gives a good black color, has a slight roughness, and from which the chalk marks may be easily removed. Common oil paint is unfitted for the purpose.
Take one quart of shellac dissolved in alcohol to a thin varnish consistency, or else procure from the dealer, shellac varnish ready prepared. Add three ounces of pulverized pumice-stone, two ounces pulverized rotten-stone, four ounces of lamp-black; mix the last three ingredients together, moisten a portion at a time with shellac varnish, and grind as thoroughly as possible with a knife or spatula upon a marble slab or glass ; after which pour in the remainder of the varnish sufficient to form a paint stirring often to prevent setting.
BLACK FOR FINE PAINTING. 43
One quart will furnish two coats for eight square feet of board not previously painted.
It is quick drying, and the board may be used in a short time. A preparation for black-boards, under the name of " Silicate slate paint " is now in market, and it is highly recommended by those who have used it.
The draft-boards of a carriage factory should be coated with the above paint at least once a month to keep them in good order.
Black Chalk. A kind of black clay containing a large quantity of carbon, found in various parts of Europe. The finer sorts are made into artists' crayons. The black chalk most commonly seen is charcoal made of willow wood. Great care is taken in burning the twigs of the willow tree to charcoal, for if not thoroughly charred the stick will be hard, and if too much burned it will crumble easily.
Black Color-and-Varnish. The carriage painter uses such a quantity of this material that varnish manufacturers thought it best to prepare it for them, and thus it is that we find in market, cans of the material bearing that name. It is simply the best quality ivory-black, ground-fine in rubbing varnish. Being mixed in large quantities it is far more uniform than that mixed by the painter, and it is also much more convenient. Though not as black as black japan, it is said to be more durable.
Black for Fine Painting. When camphor gum is burned and the soot collected by means of a paper funnel or a saucer inverted over it, the result mixed with gum-arabic will be found far superior to the best ivory-black.
44 BLACK LEAD.
Black Lead. Plumbago or Graphite, is a native carburet of iron or oxide of carbon, found in many countries, but particularly in Borrodale, in Cumberland and Russia, where there are mines of it, from which a good quality is obtained, and it is consumed in large quantities in the formation of crayons and black-lead pencils which are in universal use. In oil it is useful as it possesses remarkably the property of covering 1 , forms very pure gray tints, dries quickly, injures no color chemically, and endures forever.
The carriage striper will find it a very useful pigment or bronze (as it is used the same as bronze). He first prepares the ground for striping, in the same manner as if about to apply gold bronze, lays on the size, etc., but instead of using bronze, the black-lead is rubbed over the size, this gives a sort of metallic lustre to the stripe, and when it is glazed over with very thin carmine or blue, it produces a very fine effect.
Black Japan. A composition of asphaltum and oil. This article was introduced into the carriage shops of the United States many years ago under the name of " English Black Japan," and was employed almost exclusively at that time for blacking the iron work on bodies ; but its advantages over the ordinary black color-and-varnish (q. v.) upon all portions colored black on bodies was soon discovered and its employment adopted by many first-class builders. However, there were comparatively few who achieved success with it, and its importation decreased until Messrs. Valentine & Co. began its manufacture under the name of " Black Body Varnish," since which time it has been in use in many of the best shops, and
BLACK JAPAN. 45
its superiority over all other mixtures for black surfaces is fully established. Black japan is a liquid of about the same consistency as varnish, of a jet-black color, although of a brownish tint when applied over a light color, or on tin or glass. Furthermore, while ordinary blacks have a greenish hue when varnished, this article will retain its jet color. It has no grains as a mixture of pigment and varnish, and its flowing qualities are good. Many err in supposing that it will cover at once, and thus take the place of color, and furnish with two or three applications a perfect surface over any ground ; but this is not the case. It was never intended for such a purpose ; it is semi-transparent, and when put upon a white ground produces a brownish tint or glaze.
The manner of use by the best painters is : first, having the body (it is seldom used on gears) colored and color- and- varnished, then well rubbed down with pumice-stone and water, the body is turned upon its side, and the upper portion is coated with japan, applied with varnish brushes, and worked over as quickly as possible, for the japan sets quickly. In a few minutes the japan will have flowed down level and have set, so that the body may be turned over and the other parts done in the same manner. Of course the material can be put on while the body is resting on a trestle in a natural position, but there being a liability of runs and flows in the surface, it is best to turn the body so that the the work may be done on the horizontal parts.
Black japan should be given plenty of time for drying before another coat, or coat of varnish is
46 BLACK SABLE.
put over it, else it is apt to turn green ; but if well dried it is ever a perfect jet-black.
Black japan varnish is made by putting- in the jet pot 48 pounds of Naples or other foreign asphaltum, except the Egyptian, and as soon as it is melted pouring in ten gallons of raw linseed oil, using- a moderate fire. Then fuse 8 pounds of dark g-um animi in the gum pot, mix with two g-allons of hot oil and pour it into the jet pot. Afterwards fuse two g-allons of dark or sea amber in a tengallon iron pot ; keep stirring- while fusing-, and whenever it appears to be overheated and rising too high, lift it from the fire for a few minutes. When it appears completely fused mix in two gallons of hot oil and pour the mixture into the jet pot. Continue the boiling for three hours longer, and in that time introduce the proper quantity of driers; draw out the fire, letting the preparation remain over-night. Then boil it until it rolls hard ; let it cool and afterwards mix it with turpentine.
Black Sable. The hair used in pencils for striping and ornamenting is obtained from the tip of the tail only of the Sable Martin, an animal common to both hemispheres, but there is so small an amount which can be used for making pencils that the price is extremely high, a simple tail bringing as high as $3.00 to $5.00. For lettering and scrolling there is no pencil that equals the sable. (See Pencils.)
Blanc D' Argent. Or silver white. These are false appellations of a white lead, called also French white. It is brought from Paris in the form of drops, is pure white, but of less body than flake white, and has all the properties of the best white leads.
BLISTERING. 47
Blaze-Stick. A tool used in graining to imitate various woods. It consists of a piece of wood three inches long- and one inch wide, shaved down very thin. A paper card is sometimes used instead. Its purpose is to make the bright blazes in the centre of a branch or crotch of a tree by a dexterous twist of the tool, or sliding it up and bearing it round to the right or left.
Blender. A brush used to blend or intimately mingle certain parts of work by artists and grainers, so that it cannot be told where one shade of color begins, or where another leaves off to soften the marks made by graining comb and wiping cloth and thus make a better imitation of hard woods.
Blending. The method of laying different tints so that they may mingle together while wet, and render it impossible to discover where one color begins and another ends. A variety of tints of nearly the same tone, employed on the same object and on the same part, gives a richness and mellowness to the effect, while the outline, insensibly melting into the back-ground, blends the objects together and preserves them in unison.
Blistering. One of the "deviltries " of varnish and paint. The swelling out of parts of a varnished or painted surface into bubbles or blisters, similar to that produced by the action of heat. Blistering of a varnished surface after the varnish has had proper time to harden, is due to the evaporation of moisture which lies confined under the shell of varnish.
This evaporation is caused by heat, and it is seldom, if ever, a blister will rise upon a varnished surface, without the temperature is raised to an
48
BLISTERING.
extreme degree, near to that which the varnish received in its manufacture.
The accumulation of moisture under the varnish may be brought about in several ways ; the most particular one being in the closing in of moisture in the rough-stuff. During the rubbing of the rough-stuff the water used is partly absorbed, and unless due care is taken to give ample time for " drying out" before the application of subsequent coats a great amount of moisture will be confined within the cells of the porous paint. Boiled oil contains moisture or volatile properties, and when steam is used to express the oil from the seed the percentage is increased. Turpentine, an extremly volatile liquid, also forms an evaporating substance which slight heat renders active,
and in its haste to reach the air it disturbs the outer surface, either lifting an elastic coating into bubbles or blisters, or bursting open a hard and inelastic one into cracks. The primary cause, then, of blistering is moisture, either in the form of wet moisture, or of evaporating liquids. The wood may have been painted before it had been seasoned, or it may have been steamed or wet in course of preparation. Paint may have been applied before the rough-stuff was free from dampness, either of which would have caused disastrous results.
Dry blistering is simply the hasty absorption of
FIG. 2. BLOCK LETTER.
BLUE CARMINE. 49
the liquids from outer coats by paint or putty which is extremely porous, depriving- the coatings of the requisite amount of binding- and adhesiveness.
Block Letter. The name given to a style of letter whose parts are of one width or nearly so. The letter H shown in Fig. 2 fully illustrating this particular feature. There are several kinds of such letters, known as "Full Block," "Half Block," etc. (which see).
Blood-Red. The color of blood. Carmine (q. v.) is the pigment which gives this color.
Blue. One of the primary colors. A color that cannot be composed by mixture of other colors. The paucity of blue pigments, in comparison with those of yellow and red, is amply compensated by their value and perfection ; nor is the palette without novelty, nor deficient in pigments of this color, of which the following comprise some of those of most importance to the painter : Ultramarine, cobalt blue, smalt, Prussian blue, royal blue, Antwerp blue, etc. (which see under their respective heads).
Blue Ashes. A pigment made by combining lime with a weak solution of nitrate of copper.
Blue Black. A well burned charcoal, made by burning wine lees (the refuse in making grape wine). Seldom found in modern paint shops.
Blue Carmine. A pigment which is very little known. It is said to be of a beautiful blue color, and durable in strong light, but is subject to change in hue, by other substances, and is blackened by foul air. For these reasons it is of but little value,
50 BLUE FOR WALLS.
Blue for Walls and Ceilings. To 3 pints of water add I pound of whiting- and 1 pound of blue vitriol, and boil slowly for several hours, stir frequently, and when it has become quite cold, pour off the liquid and mix the cake of color with good glue size and use it the same as white- wash.
Blueing and Greening. Terms applied to the change in the color of finished vehicles, caused by the exclusion of light or the presence of impure air, such as gas from a coal fire ; the effect being to turn blacks, blues, and kindred colors green'ish, while in connection with dampness, varnish will become bluish or smoky. The effect may be removed by washing, but when the body of the varnish has changed color, the only cure consists in rubbing down and re- varnishing. Accidental and very satisfactory exceptions may now and then occur. As for instance : A gentleman returning from Europe, sent his carriage to the coachbuilder to be painted green ; it had originally been black, but was found to have changed to a deep green, by reason of long storage in a dark, close stable, and so uniformly, that by simply blacking the moldings, and re- varnishing, it was returned to the owner with a bill as if re-painted to order. The blueing of varnish may be frequently noticed during a heavy rain storm. And as all high grade varnishes will thus turn blue, there appears to be no remedy, although some varnishes will turn more readily than others. The sun removes the blue appearance.
Blue Orchre. A mineral color of rare occurrence, found in Cornwall, Eng., and in North America. What Indian red is to the color red ? and Oxford
BODY GREEN. 51
orchre to yellow, this is to other blue colors. It is admirable rather for its modesty and solidity, than for the brilliancy of its color.
Blue Tint. In coloring*, this tint is made of ultramarine and white, mixed to a light azure color. It follows the yellows, and with them makes greens, and with reds it produces purples.
3lue Verditer. A beautiful light blue color, obtained from the w r aste nitrate of copper by adding to it a quantity of chalk. It is little affected by light; but time, damp and impure air, turn it green and ultimately blacken it changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than in water. It is therefore used principally for distemper painting, though it has been found to stand well many years in watercolor drawings, when kept dry.
Body. A thick consistency of color. The quality of opaqueness or covering- power. The quality of thickness as opposed to fluidity in varnish and other liquids. We say a paint has no body when it does not cover the ground over which it is spread, though it may appear thick, and we say a paint has a good body when it covers well, even when applied very thinly ; as a good ivory -black over white china completely hides the surface of the china.
~Jody Colors. In heraldic painting there are parts when the color must be laid right on in, such a manner that it may form a thick, uniform coating on which the outline is traced, and this paint is called body color. It is also applied to any finely ground color to be used on a carriage body.
Body Green. Called also a "Nile Green;" a dark green best made by repeated coatings as described
52 BODY REST.
herewith. First coat the work with a mixture of Prussian blue, Milori green and black, as near the desired shade possible, then glaze (q. v.) with yellow lake or Dutch pink.
Body Rest. A sort of bench or rest for carriage bodies when they are turned upon the side or end, for convenience in rubbing-, and to prevent the bruisingof that part which comes in contact with the rest or floor. It consists of two pieces of board ; say, one foot square,
and one-and-a-half inches
, , . , ., , FIG. 3. BODY REST.
thick, nailed together, as
shown in the engraving-, the edge of the upright piece being- well padded and covered with leather.
Body Stand. For resting carriage bodies upon when painting-. A great variety of stands are to be seen. Some utilize barrels, boxes, and kegs, while others employ the patent body rests or jack, this is a contrivance for sustaining- light carriage bodies, in almost any position while being painted or varnished; this "jack" is provided with an eccentric clamp which "bites" the bottom strip of a light body or an extra strip screwed on and so fitted with a segmental g-ear and interlocking pawls that the body may be turned to suit the convenience of the workman. It may be also used in painting wheels. (See also Jack.)
Body Varnish. A superior quality of copal varnish, made from the best materials from formulas which a long- experience and the most careful and costly tests have proved the best. Most body varnishes bear a name which distinguishes the quality ; as,
SOILED OIL. 53
"Wearing- Body," "Medium Drying- Body/' 1 ' Hard Drying- Body," etc. (See Varnish.) Boiled Oil. Linseed oil (raw) becomes slowly converted by the action of the air into a tough semitransparent mass ; but this property is possessed in a far higher degree by the so-called boiled oil, that is to say an oil which has been brought by the action of heat and of oxidizing materials into a state of greater activit3^, in fact into a state of incipient slow oxidation, the result of which is the formation of the substance termed linoxine, which in many of its properties corresponds to caoutchouc. The substances with which linseed oil is boiled are litharge, oxide of zinc, and peroxide of manganese. It is certainly preferable to carry the operation of boiling upon a water bath, or at least with vessels provided with steam jackets. The oxides are employed in coarse powders, which are suspended in a linen bag in the oil. In practice, 1 part of oxide of zinc or litharge is taken to 16 parts of raw oil ; and of the manganese 1 part to 10 of oil ; the oxides become partly dissolved in the oil, while they aid in converting the palmitine, etc. (not linoleine), into plaster (lead or zinc soap). Boiled linseed oil usually contains from 2.5 to 3 per cent of litharge dissolved. Neither the addition of sulphate of zinc, nor such absurdly added substances as onions, bread crust or beet root have any result whatever. The lower the temperature at which linseed oil is boiled the brighter its color. Mulder found that when raw linseed oil, especially if old, was kept from 12 to 18 hours at a temperature of 100 degrees, it acquired the property of boiled oil. Sometimes after boiling, linseed oil is bleached by exposing it in
54 BONE-BLACK.
shallow trays made of sheet-lead and covered with sheets of glass to the action of strong summer sunlight.
Bone- Black. A pigment obtained by heating animal bones to redness in a retort or closed vessel.
It is deprived of the phosphate of lime with which it is blended by the action of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, when it yields one of the most valuable forms of animal charcoal. It is often palmed off for ivoryblack (q. v.) which is greatly superior to it in color and durabilty. Many know this pigment under the names of patent black, drop black, etc. For animal black any animal matter serves, the heat dissipating the oily and resinous elements. For bone-black, the bones are placed in a crucible and subjected to great heat. In cooling, the gases of heavy oil, mixed with tarry matter and ammonia are condensed. Bone-black, the residue, is separated by dilute hydrochloric acid. Excellent charcoal black is that produced by inclosing wood in a cast-iron cylinder, wholly excluding from the action of the air, and placing it over a strong fire. The cylinder is allowed to get red-hot. The whole of the gaseous ingredients being then disengaged, the fire is extinguished, and the charcoal allowed to cool in the cylinder. The woods that furnish the best charcoal for painters are the beech and vine, the former yielding a black of a bluish, and the latter one of a grayish cast. Wine lees, after being calcined, washed several times in boiling water, and ground to a fine powder, yield a fine velvety black, which, however, is chiefly used by copper-plate painters. Peach-stones burned in a close vessel, yield charcoal which, after being ground, may be successfully used for that kind of
BOTTLE GREEN. . 55
black generally known by the name of raven gray. A very pure charcoal is also made by exposing white sugar candy in a earthenware retort. When charcoal, obtained from any of these sources, is employed in priming, it should be mixed with a very small portion of white-lead and made up for use with drying oils.
The best of all blacks, used by artists on canvas, is made from ivory shavings, in a crucible closely stopped, and afterwards ground very fine. It may be freed from every possible impurity by washing it in muriatic acid or w r eak aqua fortis, and is then an extremely rich and intense color; but being costly, it is not employed in ordinary work. The water-color called China ink, is merely ivoryblack perfectly pure, mixed with a solution. Bottle Green or Yellow Lake Green. A very useful and at this time a very fashionable color for gears or bodies. It is produced in the following manner : First prepare a ground, as solidly as possible, i. e., free from streaks and spots, with color made of lemon chrome yellow and black; the proportions cannot be definitely stated, and the eye of the workman must tell the moment to stop adding one ingredient to the other, owing to the varying strength of the pigments used ; however, the shade of green best suited is that of bottle glass. The chrome yellow and black both having been mixed and ground separately in japan, there will be no trouble experienced in adding one to the other until the desired shade is obtained. This being done, take a small quantity of Dutch pink ancj, Prussian blue ground in japan and mix them to a rich shade of bottle green. This forms the color proper. The groundwork
56
of yellow and black being 1 smooth and well dusted off, apply tlie " Dutch pink green" smoothly with a camel's-hair brush, having" first thinned the paint to a milk-like consistency. One coat should be sufficient, and if care is exercised, the surface will be in good order to receive the glazing.
Having at hand some yellow lake, mix it with hard drying- body varnish instead of japan, and run it throug-h the mill, next add about two tablespoonfuls of the Dutch pink color to each pint of the yellow lake glazing, and when the color on the job is dry, dust off, and lay the yellow lake in the same manner as if it was color-and- varnish. This gives a rich, deep green and one that can be made in no
other way.
~ , , , FIG. 4 BRICK HEADER.
Care should
be taken that no yellow, such as lemon or orange chrome be mixed with the Dutch pink or the yellow lake, but a drop of red, such as vermilion or carmine will improve it by giving- it a warmer hue. The tone of the color may be changed so as to be suitable for both body and gears. By simply glazing the color proper with pure yellow lake the tone will be more yellow. By adding- a drop or two of blue to the glazing: a bluish green will result ; and a little vermilion and blue will give it an olive hue.
Break. An ornament put in parts of a long- line or stripe to break up or destroy the unpleasant appearance of an unbroken line, or the monotony of a continuous stripe.
COLORS. 57
Brick Header. A brush shaped, as shown in engraving-, of short, stiff bristles, used for putting the lines on brick and stone work.
Brick Red. The color of bricks. Venetian red used alone makes a very fair brick color, although some prefer to darken it with Spanish brown or to lighten it with orange mineral.
Bridle. An extra binding of cord or other material put upon a new brush to confine the bristles until they are partly worn down. (See Brushes.)
Bringing Out Grain. The application of several coats of varnish, oil or other liquid in order to cause the grain of the wood to appear plainly. Permanent wood filling (q. v.) is an excellent coating for hard- wood to bring out the grain, or for staining soft-wood to imitate hard- wood. One application of this liquid is applied with a brush and then rubbed over with rags to work it into the wood, then, if a dead oil finish is desired, a second coat is applied after 48 hours for drying in the same manner. If a gloss is desired, one or two coats of varnish may be put on instead of a second coat of P. W. F.
Broad Stripe. A stripe over one-half inch in width. (See Striping.)
Brocades. Large and rich, but somewhat erratic, damask patterns of oriental origin.
Broken Colors. Pure colors mixed with black from the lightest to the deepest tone. For example, if blue be mixed with red yellow, a little black is produced which reduces or breaks the orange.
58 BRONZE.
Bronze. A metallic powder, made by reducing- the metals, gold, silver, copper, etc., to powder by grinding upon a marble slab while held in a pasty mass, by the addition of honey. When sufficiently levigated the honey is washed away with water and the sediment, when dried, becomes the bronze of commerce. There are many qualities and shades of color. The best way to use bronze is to put it on dry over gilding size (q. v.) using a piece of chamois skin or plush as a rubber ; this gives a metallic lustre not obtained when the bronze is mixed as paint. Bronze, however, does not equal foliated metals in reflecting light, and consequently is far less brilliant than gold, silver or copper leaf. Bronze may be obtained of the following colors : white, silver, flesh, light and dark gold, rich gold, lemon, orange, fire, copper, carmine, crimson, lilac, violet, brown, and light and dark greens ; and for hurried or cheap ornamenting the painter may manipulate them sometimes to good advantage. The universal complaint against gold bronze is that it soon blackens or changes color. The remedy, in so far as a remedy can be given consists in buying pure gold bronze, made from gold leaf. Inferior gold bronze is made from leaf that contains silver or copper, and w r hen these metals are present they soon oxydize or blacken. The writer has ever had success in the use of gold bronze by following these simple directions, viz. : First be certain that the gilding size is in a proper condition, i.e., slightly " tacky," for if otherwise the bronze will be "drowned " or sink into the size and be partially covered by it. Then when the bronze has been applied and well rubbed over with chamois skin, apply a very thin
BRONZE. 50
coating- of French shellac varnish (q. v.) with a camel's-hair pencil. This coating- will dry in a few minutes and its principle purpose is to protect the metallic powder from the acid which is present in finishing- varnishes and which is almost certain to form verdigris when put directly upon the bronze, and this tends to blacken it. We have seen some beautiful work done in scrolling- with colored bronzes, proving that they may in skillful hands be made to produce very pleasing color effects.
APPLICATION OF BRONZE COLORS. Bronze powders, whatever the colors they have been made to assume by heat or acids, may be applied so thinly as to be partly transparent, and so very attractive effects are induced by the use of a colored varnish, or wash, to the surface before applying the powder. Thus different shades of one color may be produced by mixing with the alcoholic solution that prepares the surface for the reception of the powder, certain proportions of ivory-black, burnt umber, or other volatile pigments, which dry readily, but leave their stain. The most pleasing effects of bronzing are produced by the manipulations of the artist workman. Applying it as taste demands, he employs the softest of brushes. Where the original tint is to remain, the surface is wiped with silk floss, or rabbit's foot. Where prominences should show bodily, the protuberances are carefully burnished with queerly shaped implements of agate, flint, or of hardened steel or blood-stone, these hand tools being ground to curves, angles, and edges to fit the sinuosities of the work. They require practice and use, as well as taste, in working-.
60 BRONZE GREEN.
CHOCOLATE COLOR BRONZING. For producing- chocolate bronze effects on chandeliers, gas-fittings and other metal surfaces, the following method may be adopted : The body pigment is to be made up of white lead ground in varnish, thinned with turpentine and tinted with a mixture of Spanish brown, Venetian red and vegetable black. The proportions of these pigments must be regulated by trial and taste, the red predominating- if a brig-lit chocolate is required or the black if a dull, deep tint is desired. This must be put on a surface free from grease, oil, dust, dirt, rust or patches of old paint. When dry, go over the surface lightly with a coat of gold size and when this has become tacky, dust on the bronze powder with a pad of cotton wool evenly on the surface, and then cover the article to protect it from the dust. When quite dry sweep off loose particles of bronze powder with a feather broom and coat the whole with copal varnish. The article is finally heated in the oven of a stove, the temperature not exceeding 300 Fahrenheit. The same process, without the heating-, will do for wood.
Bronze Green. A mixture of five parts chrome green, two parts umber, and one part of black. This color is excellent for iron railings, and other such work, where gold bronze can be used advantageously in lightening up the prominent parts to make it ornamental.
Brought- Forward. Plain painting prepared for decoration.
Brown. Most people are mistaken in the classification of browns, and many colors which rightly claim the name of brown are known by another
BROWN. 61
name, while there are many colors called brown, which are simply dark red and maroon colors. Brown, rigiitly speaking 1 , is a warm broken color, of which yellow is one of its principal constituents, and under which classification we find umber, sienna, and several other earthy pigments. Red and black mixed form what many call brown; but until the black predominates in the mixture, or a little yellow is added, it is really a dark red and not a brown. Spanish brown is not,- correctly speaking:, a brown, but a dark red. Many varieties of dark red are formed by the painter, and called brown, which lead us astray sometimes in our comprehension of what brown really is, and it is quite impossible to form a correct idea of the color by its name. We may class broivn under two divisions; first, those which rightly come under that, as umber, Vandyke brown, mang-anese brown, cappagh brown, asphaltum, and all grades descending- from black to olive; and second, those which are called brown by the painters, but which do not properly belong under that term, as defined by scientists. Umber and sienna, both the " burnt" and "raw," are useful, and often called into requisition in matchingshades of color. The browns made with umber for a base and called "umber browns," are in demand on fine carriage panels or g-ears; and these glazed with yellow lake give a variety of shades, the yellow lake giving a great depth of color, and a yellowish hue, while the same ground glazed with lake or carmine (lightly) gives a reddish tint of great beauty. By adding one part of lemon yellow to three parts of burnt umber a beautiful color is formed called "olive brown,"
$2 BROWN JAPAN.
This is one of the yellowish browns verging on to olive, and the shade may be varied by a change in the proportion of ingredients. Japan brown is a beautiful color when properly mixed, and is made by adding a very little Indian red (q. v.) to black japan. This method of forming a brown is an excellent one where old work is to be re-colored, the japan laying over an old varnish surface without the danger of cracking so often experienced. A color known as " Bismarck brown " may be made as follows : First make a ground of two parts burnt umber to one of white lead ; put over this two coats of burnt sienna, and glaze with a mixture of one ounce carmine, one-half ounce of English crimson lake, and one ounce of best gold bronze. When a light color is required use a ground of English vermilion (q.v.) and glaze as above.
Brown Japan. A composition of shellac gum and oil, used as a drier in the mixing of paints. Some painters use the simple word Japan to express the above, while others (the manufacturers) give it the name of " Crown Coach Japan."
There is a great difference in japans put upon the market, and in order to ensure good work, care should be exercised in the selection of this useful article. A good japan should assimilate with raw linseed oil, otherwise the paint containing the two ingredients will be apt to thicken up or curdle before it can be applied.
The best way to test japan is to add a few drops to a small quantity of raw linseed oil, stirring the mass for a moment, and thus ascertain whether a smooth liquid is formed, or a curdled mass the
BRUSHES. 63
result. The latter being- sufficent proof to condemn it.
Brown Pink. A vegetable lake, made from French berries and dye woods. It is a fine, rich, transparent color, but inclines more toward a citrine, or an orang-e color, than to a brown. It is a very fugitive color.
Brown Stain. For staining- woods a brown color, sulphuric acid, more or less diluted, according- to the intensity of the color to be produced, is applied with a rag- or brush to the wood, previously cleaned and dried. A lighter or darker brown stain is obtained, according- to the strength of the acid. When the acid has acted sufficiently, its further action is arrested by the application of ammonia. Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown coloration, which, however, is not permanent unless the air is excluded by a thick coating of varnish. Nitric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, which is converted into a dark brown by the subsequent application of tincture of iodine.
Brunswick Green. A pigment obtained by exposing- metallic copper to the action of muriate of ammonia. It is a chloride and oxide of copper. It is also g-enerated by the action of sea-water upon copper, and it may be said to be, virtually, verdigris.
Brushes. Are made of bristles and of hair, bound to a handle by cord, wire, metal stamped to imitate wir^e, tin, copper and brass. The oval and round paint and varnish brushes are g-eneral]y bound with cord, wire or its imitations, and copper and brass. The flat bristle, fitch, badger,
64 BRUSHES.
bear and camel Vhair brushes with tin. The ordinary paint brushes contain the inferior or coarser grades of bristles ; the varnish brushes the selected or finer qualities. The oval and round brushes are numbered by the brush-maker to designate sizes, from No. 6 down to No. 1, thence from one (naught) to 6 naughts (thus, 000,000). For carriage painting the sizes between one and four naughts are considered best the smaller ones may be used, but it is advantageous to use as large a brush as possible on most of the work. Small brushes called "tools" are numbered from 1 up to 10, the latter being the largest. Brushes are generally used in sets, as, for example, in painting a body or gear, we would use a large brush for laying the paint, and a small " tool " for " cleaning up " around the moldings, nuts and bolt-heads. It would be an almost endless task to illustrate and describe all of the many varieties of paint and varnish brushes, and a few of the principal ones only will receive attention here. Russia is the great bristle growing country, and her exports reach as high as 5,000 tons of this commodity every year. Hogs in countless herds roam the deep Muscovite forests, where the oak, the pine, the beech, larch and other nut bearing trees cover the ground with acorns and nuts to the depth of a foot or more. But these swine are not all of value for their bristles. The perfect bristle is found only on a special race, and that race fattened in a certain way. On the frontiers of civilization all over the Muscovite territory are the government tallow factories, where animals reared too far from the habitation of men to be consumed for human food are boiled down for the
BRUSHES. 65
sake of their fat. The swine are fed on the refuse of these tallow factories at certain seasons, and become in prime condition after a few months feeding. It is from these animals that the bristles of commerce mainly come. When the swine are fattened, and their bristles in fine order, they driven in kraals so thickly that they can scarcely stand irritated and goaded by the herdsmen till they are sullen with rage kicking- striving, struggling and scrambling together in feverish rage, they are seized one by one, by the kak koffs a class of laborers educated to plucking swine and their bristles pulled out by the roots. The perspiration into which the poor creatures are thrown by their exercise causes their bristles to yield easily. The process is pleasant neither to the eye nor the ear. The hog strenously resists with loud outcries, and vehement opposition. It does no good. Once seized, he is instantly divested of his clothing and then immediately released, goes grunting off to the woods.
The so-called " French bristles" are principally from Russia stock, cleaned and bleached to render them white and exceedingly elastic, yet soft as an infant's hair. From these are made the fine pencils of the artist. Length, elasticity, firmness and color are elements that constitute their excellence, and the bristle expert can readily assort them for their special uses.
The ordinary paint brush for general work is made either from selected Russia bristles, or \vith an inferior gray centre, inclosed by fine white bristles. Carriage and wagon painters usually select the best, i. e., Russia bristles, and the size known as four naught (0000) is used for rough-stuff
BRUSHES.
and foundation coats, while the house painter would choose a larger one possibly. A new brush of this description will not work well unless " bridled," i. e., having- an extra binding- added, and this may be done in several ways.
FIG. 5. THE ORDINARY PAINT BRUSH, FOUR NAUGHT SIZE.
1. By winding- a strong- cord around the bristles to about the middle of the same, or, as far from the original binding as desired. 2. By covering- a portion of the bristles with leather stitched on tightly. 3. By wrapping a piece of muslin around the brush, then tying a cord at the centre of the bristles turn the muslin back and tie it securely to
FIG. 6. BADGER-HAIR VARNISH BRUSH.
the handle. 4. By using the patent metallic band or binder, and by other means, the object being to shorten the exposed bristles until the brush is partly worn down, when the extra binding may be removed.
BRUSHES. 6?
BADGER-HAIR VARNISH BRUSH. The badger-hair brush is next in importance. It is well bound in tin, hair set in glue, handle nicely japanned, and chisel-pointed. For varnishing small panels or parts of a body it has no equal. The best badgerhair is imported on the skin from Germany and Russia.
CAMEL'S-HAIR BRUSH. For laying fine color no better brush can be had than the camel's-hair brush called by some "mottlers," by others " blenders," and again by others " spalters," each term, however, is foreign to the American carriage painter, and the " Camel's-hair brush" is
FIG. 7. CAMEL'S-HAIR BRUSH.
by far the most appropriate, and most commonly used. The hair used in these brushes, however, is not all taken from the camel, much of it being from the tail of the Russian brown squirrel. The hair is first cut from the tail with scissors, the wool or under fur combed out, and then tied in bunches ready to be straightened. This requires skill and practice. The hair is placed in metal cups having a thick, loaded bottom, and by a quick motion of the hand, drummed on the bench for a considerable time, until the pointed or fine ends are all even with each other. In the process of cutting and cupping the lengths are kept sepa-
68 BRUSHES.
rate as far as possible. The hair is now ready for the brush-maker, who cups and combs it out, weighs the quantity required, and places it into the ferrules or tin bands. It requires skill to handle the short, slippery hair and keep it in shape. It is not many years, when work of this kind was all done abroad. Now, it is claimed by experts that the American manufacture of most kinds of brushes excels the foreign goods. The chiseled camel's-hair brush, as made by Miles
FIG. 8. GILDER'S CAMEL'S HAIR TIP.
Bros. & Co., of New York, is something entirely new, and is certainly a very fine brush and well calculated to do smooth, particular work. Another class of these goods made by the same firm, are made extra thick and from picked camel's-hair, the binding of brass having its edge turned under, which gives additional security to the hair and prevents cutting the hair on the edge of the binding, which too frequently happens. CAMEL'S-HAIR TOOL. Small brushes, called tools, made of camel's-hair are used for black-
BRUSHES.
69
ing 1 irons, lacquering, and other work of like nature. The next brush to be considered is the camel's-hair DUSTER, a tool used mostly by gilders in removing the loose gold leaf from their work when gilding. These are bound in split quill and fastened with wire. The next to claim attention is the gilder's camel's-hair tip. This is made by laying a thin layer of hair between two pieces of card-board and gluing the whole firmly together, as shown, it is used to lift and carry to the work the pieces of gold leaf. A slight moisture or
FIG. 9. WALL BRUSH.
stickiness is given the hairs by simply passing them over the face or hair of the head, and then the gold leaf can be easily lifted from the cushion on which it has been cut and dexterously laid upon the gilding size.
For painting walls a large flat bristle brush is used see cut made of all white bristles, bound in copper, brass or galvanized iron. It has always been a difficult task to make a wall brush to stand the hard usage it generally receives, but now that machinery of the most approved pattern has been introduced in the brush factory these brushes are made under warrantee.
70 BRUSHES.
Blenders, mottlers, stipplers, top graiiiers, and several other classes of brushes tog-ether, with pencils, etc., will be noticed under their respective heads.
FIG. 10. THE FLAT, BRISTLE VARNISH BRUSH.
FLAT BRISTLE VARNISH BRUSH. These are made of the best, white bristles, set with glue, doubled nailed, soft yet very elastic, with chiseled points. They are considered the best brush made by many of the best varnishers. They are put up in sets, as shown in the engraving, from one inch in width to three inches, the price being- about $3.50 per set. These brushes, if used with care, will wear a long time.
FIG. 11. A FLAT, CHISELED BRUSH.
FLAT, CHISELED BRUSH. Flat paint brushes are preferred by some. These are chiseled or ground off on the sides to form a thin edge. They are bound in tin or rubber and are graded in size by their width.
BRUSHES. 71
FLATTENED ROUND TOOL (CHISELED). This is superior to the "sash tool" for cleaning between the spokes, and for finishing around the various parts of the gear. This brush is tin-bound, well riveted, and the bristles are set in glue, which is insoluble in turpentine and oil, and therefore supe-
FIG. 12. FLATTENED ROUND TOOL, CHISELED.
rior to the cement used by some brush-makers. The size best suited for the carriage painter is about one and a quarter inches in width. This is also an excellent tool for varnishing, in trimming up around moldings, etc.
FITCH-HAIR BRUSH. This brush was formerly in extensive demand as a varnish brush but of late years the badger has supplanted it, owing, in a degree, to the numerous imitations in the market,
FIG. 13. SASH-TOOL.
and also to the liability of the rotting away or breaking of the hairs when in use. The hair is mostly from the tail of the skunk. SASH TOOL. A sash tool, or small brush, shaped as shown in cut, is necessary as an auxiliary to the large brush, for cleaning up in corners, etc.
BRUSH-KEEPER.
OVAL VARNISH OR PAINT BRUSH. As the under parts of a carriage are not rubbed with lump pumice-stone, the same as the body, the paint must be applied with greater care, and the 000 oval brush will work best, laying the paint smoothly and leaving but few, if any, brush marks. The "chiseled' 7 brush should always have preference over a partly worn one, as the bristles are as a rule softer upon their extreme ends. The companion of the oval brush is the flattened tool here shown.
FIG. 14 OVAL VARNISH BRUSH, CHISELED.
Brush- Keeper. There are several plans in use for keeping brushes in good condition, a few of these we illustrate. Many varnish rooms are provided with a large tin box having two compartments, one for the best, the other for common varnish brushes ; but this plan is not a good one, for the large quantity of varnish required provided the brushes are suspended in varnish presents a large surface to the air when the box is opened, and the varnish soon becomes thickened and useless. Small cans are the best. The brushes are suspended from wires which run through a hole in the handles, and the brushes are allowed to hang just deep enough to cover one-half the binding.
BRUSH-KEEPER. ?3
Varnish, as a general thing-, is delicate in its choice of company; a little turpentine, a little oil, or a little of anything-, except its own kind, will make it liable to pit, or crawl, or flake, or cut up some caper, and that dangerous little is frequently supplied by putting into the varnish-cup a brush fresh from a bath of another liquid.
In an experience of thirty years, the writer has found no liquid so well adapted for filling the brush-keeper, as the best finishing varnish made
FIG. 15. DEVICE, FOR PRESERV- FIG. 16. ANOTHER METHOD ING PAINT BRUSHES. OF PRESERVING BRUSHES.
without driers (expressly for the purpose) . This material is not in the market and to procure it, one must order it from a varnish-maker. Such a liquid will last for years without skining over, if care is taken to wipe out the varnish from the brush before suspending it in the keeper.
For keeping paint brushes, it is only necessary to suspend them in water. A good plan being to drive nails through the staves of a tub or pail on which to affix the brushes. The water should be allowed to just cover the bristles or hair, for if it
?4 BUFF COLOR.
covered the binding-, the parts swell and burst the binding 1 .
Buff Color. A color made by a mixture of white, yellow and red pigments.
Burgundy Lake. A name given to a preparation of lake color which has the muddy or dirty red hue of Burgundy wine. It may be made by adding aspbaltum to any bright lake.
Burning Off. When it is desired to remove old paint from any surface, in order to re-paint, burning off is resorted to where no better means are at hand. This is done in several ways; one of which is to heat a large block or bar of iron to a red heat, then, holding it a few inches from the paint, the latter will rise in blisters and soften so that it may be easily scraped from the surface. Another plan is to use a furnace made of sheet iron, and so formed that its front can be presented to all parts of the work in hand, such as sharp corners, etc. Another plan is to employ a rubber hose from a gas-jet, a burner being- fitted to the end of the hose, and this has been improved upon by an inventive Yankee, in making a burner which admits to the flame atmospheric air, giving an increased degree of heat with the same amount of gas. Lamps of various shapes and kinds have been in use, some burning alcohol, some gasoline, all very good where gas and better means for getting heat to the paint are not at hand.
Burnishing. The gloss or lustre of a metallic surface, as of gold leaf, made by rubbing it with a smooth hard substance, such as a dog's tooth fitted into a handle, or a piece of agate, and other hard stones. When burnishing gold leaf, a piece of
BURNT UMBER. 75
India paper is put between the metal and burnishing- tool to prevent tearing 1 it from the surface. Frame gilders are the principal burnishers of gold leaf, it being* scarcely ever thought of in the carriage shop.
Burnt Carmine. Madder carmine or cochineal carmine partially charred by fire until it assumes a rich purple hue. Used principally by protrait painters for drapery, etc.
Burnt Sienna. Crude or raw sienna heated to a red heat acquires a deep reddish brown hue, and is known as burnt sienna. It is in great demand in the paint shop, being useful as a color by itself or mixed with other pigments, and also for imitating the grain of woods. It makes a beautiful tint with white, and for striping on fine work it is used extensively. It is a rich semi-transparent brown orange, and when properly mixed and applied it is a very durable color.
Burnt Umber. Umber is a natural ochre abounding with decayed vegetable matter, of the nature of peat.
This pigment when burnt or roasted gives a beautiful dark brown shade, frequently seen on carriage panels. It is a very durable color, and when a trifling amount of red and black are added to it it is called umber brown, a favorite color in some localities. Umber is a natural drier, holding in its parts a large share of manganese, and it will therefore dry well, though mixed with a larger share of oil than almost any other pigment. However, this addition should be made judiciously. Burnt umber being semi-transparent the ground should be a similar but darker color, as
76 BURNT VERDIGRIS.
Indian red, lamp-black and a little yellow. It is an excellent stain for pine wood to make a blackwalnut color ; simply wet the pigment with water, or, better, with old ale, and rub it over the wood, let dry, then varnish over it.
B u rnt Verd igris. Verdigris roasted until it assumes an olive shade. Many of the greens ma}^ thus be changed in hue by heating them on a shovel over the fire.
Cadmium Red. A pigment which approaches an orange scarlet color an artist's color.
Cadmium Yellow. A pigment made by passing a stream of sulphurated hydrogen through a solution of nitrate or sulphate of cadmium. It is a warm, yellow pigment, which passes readily into tints with white lead, appears to endure light and remains unchanged in impure air. The metal cadmium being hitherto scarce, it has been but little employed in the arts, except in water colors.
Camel's-Hair. Hair from the animal of that name, used for making brushes and fine pencils. (See Brushes.)
Canada Balsam. A kind of turpentine obtained from the Balm of Gilead Fir, a native of Canada and the upper part of the United States. It is a transparent liquid, almost colorless, with an agreeable odor and an acrid taste. It pours readily out of a vessel or bottle and shortly dries up and becomes solid. When fresh it is of the consistence of thin honey. It is used as an ingredient in varnishes, in mounting objects for the microscope, * etc. To make a varnish for drawings, prints, maps, etc., take Canada balsam one ounce ; spirits of turpentine two ounces ; mix together. The drawing should first be put upon a stretcher and
78
CANARY COLOR.
sized with a thin solution of isinglass, and dried, then varnish with a soft brush a badger.
Canary Color. The color of a canary bird, made by mixing lemon yellow, or the pigment known as patent yellow with white lead.
Cane Work. The imitation of cane by striping. To lay out cane work, first provide a thin wooden ruler, say f of an inch wide. The width of ruler
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FIG. 17. SHOWING THE LINES FOR MAKING IMITATION CANE- WORK.
will govern the size of opening in the cane. The ruler must be perfectly true, so that a line drawn on either side the space between the lines shall present no variation. The marker used should be so formed that it will follow closely on the edge of the ruler. On a flat surface a rigid or stiff ruler may be used. Vertical lines are first marked, then by the aid of a square the horizontal lines may be marked off at right angles. Then the diagonal lines may be added. If the work is properly laid
CARMILION. 79
out each hole of the cane work is an octagon or nearly so. The paint for cane work may be made by mixing- to white a little yellow ochre and a little sienna, until the desired shade is reached. It is well to allow one course of lines dry before layingothers across them. Cane work may be purchased in sheets of transfer or decalcomanie, or upon paper ready to be glued or fastened to the panel. The best imitation cane is made under Barry's patent, composed of flexible paint. It is to be had in sheets ready for cutting to size and pasting on the work. Brewster & Co. of Broome street, and many other leading carriage-builders employ this in preference to any other, which certainly recommends it.
Cappagh Brown. A pigment composed principally of bog-earth or peat, mixed or mineralized by manganese in various proportions. That in which the peat most abounds is the most transparent, deep and rich in color and dries promptly in oil. It is similar to a mixture of superior Vandyke brown and asphaltum in appearance.
Car-body Color. A color much used on railway cars. Composed of yellow, white and a little red.
Carmelite Brown. A mixture of black and Vandyke brown a very dark brown of French origin.
Carmilion. A sort of carmine, made by a secret process, in which the coloring properties are never brought to a dry state, as ordinary pigments. It appears to answer a good purpose on some descriptions of work., and is not so expensive as carmine.
80 CARMINE.
Carmine. A beautiful red pigment made from cochineal. The color is so extensively used by carriagepainters and is at the same time so expensive, compared with ordinary pigments, that it seems worthy unlimited space in its description, and from one of the best sources of information we have gathered the following :
The cochineal insects feed upon the leaves of the Quercus coccifera, a low evergreen oak with prickly leaves, and on other plants of a similar nature. The females fix themselves firmly on the plant, which serves them as a habitation, and never quit this spot. Each insect lays several thousand eggs, which proceed from the body through an aperture placed at the extremity of the abdomen, and pass under the belly to be hatched. Death then insues ; the body of the mother dries up ; its two membranes become flat, and form a sort of shell or cocoon, in which the eggs are enclosed, and from whence the little cohineals soon proceed. When the insects are in proper state they are brushed off the cactus plant with a squirrel's tail, and killed by immersing them in hot water, they are afterward dried in the heat of the sun, or in the warmth of a stove. The finest cochineals, however, are killed by dry heat and not by immersion. Three harvests are made annually ; the first being the best. It has been estimated that 70,,000 dried insects are required, on a average to form a pound weight of cochineal. Cochineal is wrinkled with parallel furrows across its back, which are intersected in the middle by a longitudinal one by this the true cochineal is distinguished from any fictitious preparation. The coloring matter is obtained in the following man-
CARMINE. 81
ner, in a state of purity. Ground cochineal is boiled for about twenty minutes in fifty times its weight of water, the strained decoction, after being- allowed to subside for a quarter of an hour, is decanted off and precipitated with a solution of acetate of protoxide of lead, acidulated with acetic acid. There are several methods employed in the preparation of carmine ; that described by Dr. Pereira, is perhaps the most approved. A decoction of the insect is made in water. To this is added a precipitant, generally bichloride of tin. It is then put in a large shallow vessel, and allowed to rest. Slowly a deposit takes place, which adheres to the side of the vessel, and the liquid being poured off it is dried, this dry precipitate is carmine. The German method consists in pouring a certain quantity of a solution of alum into the decoction of cochineal.
There are some remarkable peculiarities about the production of carmine : the shade and character of color is altered by slight, very slight, differences in the temperature at which it is prepared ; and with every variation in the circumstances of illumination a change is discovered in the color. Sir Humphrey Davy relates the following anecdote in illustration of this : "A manufacturer of carmine, who was aware of the superiority of the French color, went to Lyons for the purpose of improving his process, and bargained with the most celebrated manufacturer of that city for the acquisition of his secret, for which he was to pay ;1,000 ($5,000). He saw all the process, and a beautiful color was produced, but he found not the least difference in the French method and that which had been adopted by himself. He appealed
82 CARMINE.
to his instructor, and insisted that he must keep something- concealed. The man assured him that he had not, and invited him to inspect the process the second time. He minutely examined the water and the materials, which were in every respect similar to his own, and then, very much surprised he said, ' I have lost both labor and my money, for the air of England does not admit us to make good carmine.' 'Stay,' said the Frenchman ; 'don't deceive yourself. What kind of weather is it now ? ' 'A bright sunny day,' replied the Englishman. 'And such are the days,' said the Frenchman, ' upon which I make my color : were I to attempt to manufacture on a dark and cloudy day, my results would be the same as yours. Let me advise you to make your carmine on sunny days !' '
Six drachms of carmine may be obtained from one pound cochineal. Rouge for the face is made by mixing half a pound of levigated French chalk with two ounces of freshly-prepared carmine. The grade of carmine known as " French No. 40 " is most extensively used by carriage-painters, it being a bright and handsome shade. The ground over which carmine is put must be made to suit the requirement of the case, for it is seldom applied as a solid color, and glazing is resorted to to economize, as well as to produce various shades. The names given to the different shades of carmine, made by changes in the ground employed are " bright, " "medium, " " dark." When we speak generally of a carmine job, we mean a deep English vermilion ground, lightly glazed with carmine. When we speak of a " bright " carmine, we mean a ground of light English vermilion, glazed in the same manner, For a "medium"
CARRIAGE PAINTING. 83
job, we make the ground a little darker with Indian red ; and for a "dark carmine" we add more Indian red, which gives us the color known in New York shops as "French red." To mix carmine we prefer to use any light colored rubbing* varnish, mixing and grinding- it quite thick at first, then adding- more varnish to form the glazing, run it through the mill the second time.
Carmine is of great service to the ornamenter, enabling him to produce delicate shades of red or pink by repeated glazings or by admixture with white. Mixed with asphaltum, verdigris, delicate greens, olives, drabs, etc., it imparts a warm tinge without injuring the color ; washed over green it gives a warm shade.
Carmine Lake. This pigment is made from the second washings in making carmine. It is one of the most serviceable lake colors on the list, owing to the various shades which can be produced by simply changing the shade of the ground-work.
Carnation. The natural color of flesh, or a sort of delicate pink, made by mixing three parts lake and one part white.
Carriage Painting. The painting of a carriage so as to secure a mirror-like surface, free from blemishes of every kind, is an art which requires a high grade of genius and intelligence; and yet, the tendency of the times is to fill the paint-shops with a class of workmen who, from inferiority of intellect and education, are considered unable to learn other branches of the trade. It is true that anybody can do a part of the work in a paint-shop and do it well, but it does not follow that because
84 CARRIAGE PAINTING! .
a boy can sandpaper off a job, he can apply a coat of paint, and yet a very large proportion of the foundation coats are laid by boys or men with no skill or judgment, and to this cause more than any other may be attributed the large number of poorly painted carriages in the country. It requires practice to make a painter, but it also requires study. The nature of paints aud oils, the effects of mixing- vegetable and mineral pigments, all require study, and no matter how skillful a man may be with the brush, he can never become a good painter without combining theory with practice. The harmonizing of colors and the effects of lights and shades are of as much importance to the coach-painter as to the artist engaged on landscapes ; but the coach-painter must go further. He must produce a perfect surface, and in such a manner as to ensure durability, though exposed to sun and storm. He must also study how to stripe and ornament, not merely how to draw a line of a different color, but where that line should be drawn to produce the best effect. Many a carriage body that looked well in the wood-shop has been made to look ungainly after the painter has drawn his lines upon it. The importance of correct taste in this respect cannot be over estimated, and every boy who enters the shop to learn the painter's trade should make it a leading study. The eye must be constantly practiced on colors, as it is by practice only that a true discrimination in shades can be attained. When painters learn their trade in this manner, we hope to see an end to the miserable compounding and blending of colors so noticeable at the present time.
CHANGEABLE COLORS. 85
Cassel Earth. A pigment of the ochre family, of a russet brown hue very similar to Vandyke brown (q. v.).
Celestial Blue. A pigment made by the mixture of yellow prussiate of potassa, chloride of barium, perchchloride of iron and sulphate of ammonia not extensively used.
Cerulean or Egyptian Blue. A pigment used in water and fresco painting-, made, of carbonate of soda, powdered flint and copper.
Ceruse. The name given to an extra fine qu
