Painting and decorating
by Walter Pearce
1907
THE Manual now laid before the public has been made possible by the sifting and arrangement of many years' notes of all that has appeared worthy of record, in processes, combinations, and practices connected with the trade coming under my notice during practical work. For the past twelve years I have tested all recipes and methods in a room set apart for the purpose, with the ultimate object of collating them in a form for publication. The need of a comprehensive manual for technological classes in house painting and decorating has provided the opportunity for carrying out my intention, and I now, for the first time, issue the whole in a concise and orderly form for reference.
The chapters follow the sequence, and cover the ground adopted by me in lectures given to the students at the Manchester Technical School for House painting and Decorating; and, feeling that the possession of a very advanced education should not be necessary to the underStanding of such a work, I have endeavoured to convey the
matter in as simple and direct a form as is consistent with the subjects treated of.
The scope of the volume being limited to elementary facts, the underlying chemical and scientific reasons for methods and processes have only been dealt with where they immediately concern the working painter and decorator. Colour and ornament have been lightly touched upon in a practical and popular manner where unavoidably intermixed with the practice of the craft, but the principles laid down are based upon a wide experience.
For additional information upon materials, I refer the student to Hurst's Painters' Colours, Oils, and Varnishes. Graining, sign writing, marbling, and paperhanging have only been touched upon in so far as principles are concerned ; the space at disposal preventing a more lengthy treatment. I have felt it necessary to devote more space to such subjects as have hitherto been but superficially handled e.g., plain painting, colour mixing, distempering, and the technique of decorating.
I have written as a painter to painters, and if the information is sometimes dogmatic in form, I believe it to be reliable in substance. I shall be at all times pleased to receive additional facts, corrections, or notes for the benefit of future editions.
The illustrations, initials, and head and tail pieces are intended, not as ideal designs, but as explanatory of the text and of the application of the principles advocated in the book, for which purpose they have been specially drawn.
PREFACE. vii
I am indebted to Messrs. Hamilton & Co. for illustrations of brushes and samples, and to Messrs. Mander Bros., Messrs. Harland & Co., Messrs. Reeves & Sons, Messrs. Lewis Berger & Sons, Messrs. Wilkinson, Hey wood & Clark, The Silicate Paint Company, and many others for assistance, both directly and indirectly most of the materials recently used for testing and experiment having been presented by these firms to the technical class which
I conduct.
WALTER JOHN PEARCE.
PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.
THE present edition of this book will be found to contain much new matter and mention of many new materials and processes.
An exhaustive correspondence with manufacturers and carefully conducted experimental tests have enabled me to sift and reduce the new matter to the smallest and most readily accessible proportions.
I take this opportunity of thanking many of the foremost firms for keeping me supplied with samples of their latest productions, which are at all times welcomed. It is not possible to speak authoritatively upon paints and varnishes without ample opportunity of keeping them under lengthened observation and putting them to practical tests of long duration, which, in the interests of the students for whom this book is primarily intended, I am always ready to do. Many materials are not dealt with at length because no such opportunity has been afforded.
The rapidity with which certain new materials and ideas have become common to the whole trade during the past few years, due in a measure to demands created by change of fashion and taste, is most remarkable, and indicates further revolutionary changes in trade practices.
The coloured plates have been re-drawn, and many minor alterations made in the diagrams.
WALTER J. PEAKCE.
RESTHAVBN, 29 LANSDOWNB ROAD, WEST DIDSBDKY, LANDS.
GENEKAL CONTENTS.
PAGES
INTRODUCTION, ... 1-4
CHAPTER I. ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF HOUSE PAINTING.
The Principal Reasons for Painting General Special Practical Application Economy in Working Cleanliness in WorkingTrade and Health Causes of Bad Health among Painter? Clients' Requirements, 5-12
CHAPTER II. WORKSHOP AND STORES.
Efficient Premises a Necessity THE PAINT SHOP Position Lighting Must be Dry Water Heating Arrangements Ceiling Colouring Fittings and Furniture Colours, Driers, Oils, &c., required on Paint Bench Drawers to Paint Bench for Tools Palette Knives for Paint Stone To Clean Paint Stone Brush Trays Brush Washer or Smutch-Can Zinc Covering for Paint Bench Ready-made Colours Large Kegs Drawers for Powder Colours Weighing Machine and Scales Rough Day-BookOil Tanks Whiting and Plaster Bins " Pickle " Cask Smudge Keg Flour Barrel Shelves Cupboard Pigeon Holes Paint Mill THE PAINTING-ROOM Wall for Large Cartoons, &c. Benches and
CONTENTS.
PAGES
Drawers Reference Book's Gas Portable Benches Paint Stone Muller and Knives Sign- Writers' Easels Entrance Way s Shelves Heating Stores Fittings Use Return of Empty Packages Storing of Parts of Cases Putting up Material for a Job Despatch of Material for a Job MANAGEMENT OF PAINT SHOP Waste Returned Residuum PaintFat Colour and Smudge Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge Thinnings for Smudge Prevention of Skinning and Hardening of Stock Colours White Lead Conservation of Tube Colours Stock Articles Enumerated Purchase of Stock, . 13-30
CHAPTER III. PLANT AND APPLIANCES.
Ladders Selection Mode of Using Ladder Brackets Scaffold Poles Planks Scaffold Construction Trestles Steps Cords Window Brackets Cradles Pulley Blocks Paste Boards Paint Bench Trestles Dust Sheets To Protect Stone Floors, Tiles, &c. Testing Scaffolding Marking and Repainting Plant Cartage Storage of Scaffolding Iron Rods and Tube for Scaffolding Small Articles BucketsCans or Kettles Pots or Pans Small Pots, &c. Stock Drums or Kegs Mixing Boards Burning-off Lamps Charcoal Burners Strainers Plant Book Rough Entry or Day Book for Paint Shop Quantity of Plant required on Jobs, . 3148
CHAPTER IV.
OF BRUSHES, TOOLS, &c.
PAINTING BRUSHES.
Hog-hair Various Hair used in Brushes Foreign Brushes French Brushes Methods of Fixing Hair Selection Test of Good Brushes Distemper Brushes The Best Distemper Brushes Sizes Wash-off, Caustic, and Lime-white Brushes Painters' Dusters Paint or Ground Brushes Patent Ready-made Brush Bridles How to Bridle a Brush Varnish Brushes Sash Tools Stipplers Paperhangers" Brushes
CONTENTS. XI
PAGES
Fitches Softeners Stencil Tools Sable Writers Brushes Found by the Employer The Purchase of Brushes True Economy in Brush Buying Storage of Brushes,
CHAPTER V. MATERIALS.
PIGMENTS White Lead Tests Zinc White Other WhiteOchres Umbers Browns Chromes Dutch Pink Artists' Yellows Reds Blues Smalts Greens Blacks Consistency of Colours Ground in Oil Commixture of Pigments Derivation of Pigments Adulterations of Pigments Test for Staining Power in Pigments Twelve Colours for Oil Colour Box Whiting Coach Painters' Colours Ready Mixed Pigments DRIERS Drying Agents for Paint Liquid Driers and Terebine Powder Driers French Powder Driers PAINTERS' OILS Turpentine Linseed Oil Size GlueMediums and Binders Washable Distempers Plasters and Stoppings Glass Paper and Smoothing Materials Importance of Good Pigments Comparative Prices of Materials, . 70-92
CHAPTER VI.
PAPER AND OTHER HANGINGS. WALL HANGINGS.
Wall Papers Qualities Varieties Dimensions Comparison between Wall Paper and Painting Selection of Wall Papers Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special PurposesRelievo Wall Hangings Lincrusta Walton Fibrous Plaster Sheet Metal Friezes Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings, . 93-100
CHAPTER VII. HANGING PAPER.
Tools Preparation of Walls Measuring for Papers PasteEdging Papers Hanging Pasting Matching Lining
CONTENTS.
PAGES
Papers Papering Ceilings Lining Cracked Ceilings Panelling and Borders Removal of Fittings Hanging Relief Materials Glue Paste Paste for Anaglypta, . . . 101-114
CHAPTER VIII. COLOUR MIXING-.
Mixing Clairecolle Mixing Distemper Mixing Paint Effects of Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint Drying Action of Paints Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil Protective Agency in Paint General Hints on Paint Mixing Colours Recommended for Tinting and Staining Paints Opaque and Transparent Pigments Matching Colour in Paint Important Rules for Matching Colours Mixed Tints and Colours Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area Stopping Complete List of Distemper Stainers Media for Decorative Painting in Distemper, 115-133
CHAPTER IX.
DISTEMPERING.
DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER.
Advantages Objections Mixing Distemper Surfaces for Distemper Colour Limit of Distemper Durability of Distemper Cleaning Distemper Work Whitening Ceilings and Walls Washing off Old Distemper Stippling Distemper American Distemper Painting Plaster prior to Distempering Damp Walls Duresco and Distemper, 134-144
CHAPTER X. ON PLAIN PAINTING.
Definition Object Qualifications of Paint Painting on New Plaster First Coat on New Plaster Second Coat Third Coat Flatting Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls
CONTENTS. XH1
PAGES
Painting on Stone Re-painting Painted Walls Painting New Wood-work Stopping Filling up Re-painting Old Wood-work Burning off Old Paint General Hints on Painting Wood- work General Notes on Painting Spreading and Consistency of Paint Sequence of Coats in Painting Knotting on Work Prior to Painting Sizing on Painted Work Technical Terms Descriptive of Paint Washing Down Prior to Re-painting Knots Rubbing Down Tar Spots Painting Round Edges Dusting Fat Edges Hints on Flatting Faults in Painting Cracking Blistering Cissing Striking or Flashing Ropiness Ladders Grinning Through in Painting Drying of Paint Time for Outside Painting Effects of Undercoats in Finish Re-touching Rubbing Down Priming Painting Signs, &c. Painting Metal-work Re-painting Old Iron- work Painting Hot Pipes and Boilers, &c. Painting Rough Wood-work Quick Paints Painting Canvas Acid Resisting and Insulating Paints Fire-proof Paints Luminous Paints, . . . 145-172
CHAPTER XL STAINING.
Woods for Staining The Artistic Limitation of Staining Classes of Staining Water Staining Chemical Staining Water Coating Oil Staining Varnish Staining Spirit Staining Improving Natural Graining Comparative Utility of Stains Application of Stains List of Colours for Water Coating Wood List of Deepening Stains Ornamental Staining, 173-182
CHAPTER XII. VARNISH AND VARNISHING-.
Varnish Classes of Varnish Oil Varnishes Spirit Varnishes Elastic and Hard Varnishes Successive Coats of Varuish Applying Varnish Principal Varnishes in Use Straining
CONTENTS.
PAtJES
Varnishes Hints on Varnishing Surfaces for Varnishing Felting Down Varnish Polishing Varnished Work Faults in Varnishing Pinholing and Cissing Pock Marks or Pitting Grittiness Specks Cracking Wrinkles The Use of Enamels Lacquers Testing Varnishes White Polished Enamel, ...... 183-195
CHAPTER XIII. IMITATIVE PAINTING.
What is Graining? Limitations to Graining, &c. The Condemnation of Graining The Intentions of the Grainer What to Imitate in Graining Positions Suitable for Graining Limits to Imitation Varied Methods of Graining, .... 196-201
CHAPTER XIV. GRAINING.
Graining Oak Pollard Oak Mahogany Walnut Pitch PineRosewood Maple Satin Wood Ash Fancy WoodsGeneral Hints, 202-211
CHAPTER XV. MARBLING.
White Marble Sienna Marble Italian Pink Marble Black and Gold Marble Grey Marbles Red Marbles Green Marbles Lapis Lazuli Graniting Devonshire Marble Alabaster St. Anne's Marble 212-215
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XVI.
Methods of Gilding Old Gold Size Japanners' Gold Size Water Gold Sizes Burnish Gold Size Matt Gold Size Isinglass Gold Size Clear Size for Gold Tools for Laying GoldLaying Gold Leaf To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground Burnish and Matt Gilding Glass Gilding Platinum and Silver Laying and Metalling Bronzes Lacquer for Metals Preparing Open Grain Wood and Stone for Gilding, . . 216-228
CHAPTER XVII. LETTERING AND SIGN- WRITING.
Shaded Lettering Illegible Type in Lettering Books on Lettering Forms of Letters Changed by Environment Rules for Construction of Letters Lettering and Methods of Work Colouring of Lettering Enrichment and Prominence of Letters Setting and Sign- Writing Pounces Painting Letters Hints on Using Sable Pencils Writing on SilkGlass Embossing Etching Glass General Notes on SignWriting, 229-245
CHAPTER XVIII. DECORATION GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
Importance of Colour Position of Ornament Scale in Ornament The Consideration of a Decorative Scheme Laws in Decoration and Ornament, 246-259
CHAPTER XIX. DECORATION IN DISTEMPER.
Qualities in Distemper for Decoration Sketch Designs Setting
Out Ornament Stencils and Stencilling Distemper Painting, 260-270
CHAPTER XX. PAINTED DECORATION.
Comparison with Distemper Stencilling in Paint Handpainted Ornament Contrast of Gloss and Flatting, . . 271-276
ILV1 CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXL RELIEVO DECORATION.
PAGES
Relief Materials Gesso and its Treatment Decoration of Relievo
Materials generally Sgraffito, 277-282
CHAPTER XXII. COLOUR.
Colour in Historic Ornament Theory of Colour The Chromatic Circle Classes of Colour Combination Colour Values and Qualities Requirements for the Study of Colour How to decide a Colour Scheme Useful Rules for the Colourist Colour Combinations for Decorators Effects of Artificial Light on Colour, .
CHAPTER XXIII.
MEASURING AND ESTIMATING.
Methods of Measuring Work Estimating. 297-299
CHAPTER XXIV. COACH PAINTING.
Differences between House and Coach Painters' Work Preparation for Coach Painting Filling up Finishing Varnishing Lining and Decorating Ship Painting, 300-305
CHAPTER XXV. PAINTERS' TECHNICAL CLASSES, .
INDEX 311
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATES IN COLOURS.
Plate I. Polychromatic Colour Scheme, .... Frontispiece
,, II. Complementary ,, ,, , . . facing page 56
,, III. Monochromatic ,, ,, . . . ,, 140
IV. Analogous ,, ... ,, 244
PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE.
Plate 1. Decorative panels designed for conventional
colouring, facing page 6
2. Decoration of house front above shop, . . ,, 10
3. Panels designed for naturalistic colour treatment, ,, 12
4. ,, ,, flat naturalistic colouring, . , 16
5. ,, ,, flat polychromatic colouring, , 26
6. Selection of contrast in paper hangings, . ,32
7. Contrasting arrangement of paperhangings, . , 48
8. Diagram showing drop pattern, .... ,64
9. Panel designed for semi-natural colouring, . ,78
10. Panels suited to stained wood decoration, . ,86 10a. Combined wall paper, ,96
11. Panels designed for monochrome painting, . . , 120
12. Simple stencils, illustrating importance of contrast, ,, 136
13. Design complete in itself at all distances from the eye, ,, 154
14. Outline patterns for staining upon wood, . . ,, 160
15. Naturalistic patterns for staining in flat colourings, ,, 162
16. Simple borders for practising brush work, . . ,, 170
17. ,, ,, . 188
18. Original treatment of plain alphabet, ... 204
19. Lower case letters for same, .... 206
20. Original alphabet, modern, 220
21. Gothic, ,,236
22. Letters for glass embossing 252
23. Degrees of conventionality in floral designs, . 258
24. Influence of pattern upon colour effects, . 268
25. Constructive decoration in application, . ,, 284
26. Borders for one colour stencilling, ... ,, 294
27. Natural ties in stencil work, .... ,,296
28. Stencil friezes for blended stencilling, . ,,300
29. Friezes for polychromatic colouring, ... ,, 302
30. Patterns stencilled over joints of wall paper, . ,,304
practical operations involved in painting and decorating must be based upon sound theoretical knowledge, otherwise they are invariably unsuccessful. Sound theories, in their turn, must have a basis of definite and clearly understood facts. Hence, the student, when he has acquired theoretical knowledge, must further cultivate the ability to correctly appreciate the postulates, or existing facts and conditions of each particular field of operation, in order to attain practical success. In other words, like the surgeon, he must first diagnose his case, then apply his theoretical knowledge to it, and finally, operate.
In no other realm of mechanical labour is this method more obviously necessary than in painting, because in no other class of work are there more ever- varying conditions. Each particular class of work has its own requirements and surroundings, and, beyond this, each individual case will vary materially from the same kind of case elsewhere.
One of the main factors in the decadence of good craftsmanship in the trade has been the lack of this perception of what is reqiiisite, and the adoption of a striving for superficial and often unnatural effect, embodied under the phrase "what looks well." The wholesale provision of manufactured decorations, designed and coloured for anywhere in general and nowhere in particular, has fostered this spirit of lazy acceptance, and dwarfed the faculty of critical perception of what is suitable for given positions and uses. Exquisite and well designed as are the decorations supplied by many art manufacturers, even work admitting of so much individuality as do many of the stencilled friezes, becomes hackneyed by repetition. Such decorations as these are frequently out
2 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
of character and out of harmony with the surroundings in which they are placed. The insinuating charm of work possessing in some part individual hand labour makes this class of decoration a dangerous obstruction to improvement in the quality of work designed and executed in situ. It is not enough that the general style and scale of a frieze or a ceiling shall accord with its associated decoration, but the repeats, the angles, and the whole setting out of the ornament ought to be determined upon the spot.
The habit of working to a ready-made specification, drawn up by persons devoid of a knowledge of the chemical and technical aspects of the craft, has also done much to discourage the practical interest of the craftsman in his operations. This has removed from him any responsibility for technical failures, and set up that destructive standard of comparison, cheapness, which is another foe to thoroughness and good workmanship. Nothing, on the other hand, is more helpful than an intelligently drawn specification from a man who understands the capabilities and peculiarities of the materials and the craft. Such a specification, in the hands of one who can detect any attempts to go behind it, is in every way conducive to the elevation of the trade.
In order to arrive at a correct appreciation of the position, and to use theoretical knowledge to the best advantage, the question that first demands settlement is the all-important and commonplace one What is the precise object to be attained in the case to be dealt with 1 Success, as has been pointed out, depends upon the shrewdness with which we completely survey the position and sum up the postulates. A man may be a very dictionary of recipes and processes, but unless he commences in this way he will certainly fail as a decorator. The principle which in criticism will be applied to all our work is the question Does it fulfil its primary object? If it fails in this it fails in everything, for no amount of technique or elaboration or costly material will compensate for the lack of fitness for purpose.
First, then, what is the end generally to be attained 1
A compliance with the hard matter of fact laws of utility is inseparable from good taste and sound craftsmanship. Beauty is so inextricably bound up with fitness, especially in relation to arrangements of form and colour, that we may almost assent to the proposition that in this connection abstract beauty cannot be considered to exist at all. The " beautiful " is determined by more or less fixed rules based upon fitness ; it admits of no excess and no deficit. It must comprehend due proportion and purposeful distribution of parts. Incongruity of association must be absent, the sensation it should give is one of satisfied
INTRODUCTION. 3
complacency and sufficiency and of precise suitability. A feeling of extravagance, superabundance, redundancy, or waste destroys this impression. It cannot certainly exist conjointly with any lack of fitness either in material, form, or colour.
In the division of mechanical work the same rules apply. The excellence of work is in a large measure dependent on its efficiency in fulfilling the purpose for which it was executed. What would be an excellent finish for one class of work would show bad judgment and ignorance if used for some other position. Utilitarian considerations are of relatively greater weight with the average Briton than purely esthetic considerations, and whilst the endeavour of the decorative house painter should always be to cultivate and forward the aesthetic side of his craft, if he can show that the two considerations are really inseparable, he will go far toward persuading the householder to be less chary of spending his money for the purpose of making his home and surroundings well-preserved, tasteful, cleanly, beautiful, and refined.
The question of colour deserves far more consideration than the average house painter gives to it. When we consider thoughtfully the very large quantity of external painting that is done yearly, and the lamentably tawdry, muddy, or dirty results, and contrast these with what might be done by the same amount of labour and material in the hands of a good colourist working in accord with a common well-defined scheme, we are astounded at the supiueness of those in authority, whose tastes are supposed to be cultivated. We almost pine for compulsory legislation on the subject. Take, for instance, the west-end of London, where acres, yea miles, of frontage are painted annually, and practically the whole triennially. Just imagine a standard three or four colours made compulsory for outdoor work for a period of five years, and what a different scene the place would present ! Our cities, instead of reflecting the dirt and smoke in the colouring of the walls and roofs, might be cheery and even elevating to the senses.
Is there some weighty element that makes for the universal sadness and badness] We believe there is, and that it is in great measure due to a total misconception. Ninety per cent, of persons appear to think that the one desideratum in a paint is that it " wont show the dirt." This is quite desirable, but when the desideratum is obtained by using "dirt colour," it evidences a lack of thought and a failure to appreciate the value of colour. In however dirty an atmosphere they may be placed, clean looking tints will look cleaner than the dirty sombre ones ;
PAINTING AND DECORATING.
and under the ordinary deposits of soot and dust, bright colours will have a generally cleaner and brighter appearance than greys and drabs. Yellows, blues, and reds, when bright in hue, will actually be improved and toned by the acccumulation of a normal quantity of dust. These facts should be borne in mind, and no opportunity allowed to pass unimproved when the surroundings of our life may be cheered and brightened by a little of one of God's best gifts to man, " colour."
PAINTING AND DECORATING.
CHAPTER I.
THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING.
'OUSE PAINTING is undertaken for three principal reasons : The first is for preservation. The second for cleanliness. The third for beautiftcation. General. These three principal reasons are placed in the above order, because the quality of cleanliness is of greater importance to the community than that of beauty ; and further, because the first necessity provides the reason for the very existence of the craft. In addition to these reasons, the fact is also apparent, that it is not possible to have complete and true beauty if the first two qualities are absent.
These three principal requirements may be termed the general reasons why house painting as a craft is a necessity of modern
D PAINTING AND DECORATING.
life. They must be kept fully in view, and given due and relative prominence when determining what is to be done and how we will do it.
Health and art have been said to be twin sisters, and, in the old English sense, science meant knowing what to do, and art expressed the act of doing what science dictated as necessary and right. Thus, health, science, and art are inseparably intermixed ; each makes for each. It is the artistic surroundings that induce health ; it is health that produces the perfect man ; and the perfect man physically is the perfect man aesthetically. The separation of art and work is quite a latter-day innovation, the two being really indissoluble. As has been pointed out, art means the act of doing work, provided the doing is scientific, right, and true.
Again, science is exactness, viz., truth; thus we see that truth must be in work to ennoble it into art ; art work, therefore, is true work. It is interesting to note how in old times this idea was firmly rooted in the mind of the people. In the Bible, as in many other old books, the idea of a connection between truth and beauty is constantly met with. Take the phrase " beauty oi holiness,"or wholeness viz., freedom from moral imperfection or inaccuracy, and many other instances of similar kind ; everywhere the relation between truth and beauty is insisted upon.
Special. Next to these general reasons, there are more special and particular reasons which apply to each separate part of the work, and which will be found to vary with each particular set of circumstances surrounding the work.
These particular reasons are of no less importance, and must be looked for, discovered, and considered, if the craftsman desires to have the credit of being a sensible and successful workman.
For instance, there are the following :
Some parts of the work will have much wear and tear ;
Others will have little or none.
Some will be exposed to the weather ;
Some will be in protected situations.
Some will be seen by daylight only ;
Some will be seen by gaslight ;
Some will be seen by both daylight and gaslight,
Some will need constant cleaning ;
Some will be out of reach and, therefore, difficult to clean.
Business premises must look smart and attractive.
Signboards must compel attention.
Some rooms must be quiet and unassertive.
Some work will be for places of amusement and gaiety ;
Some for places of gravity and seriousness.
In different business houses the class of goods shown must be considered.
PLATE i.-DECORATIVE PANELS DESIGNED FOR CONVENTIONAL COLOURING.
To face p. 6.]
THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 7
In public places the class of frequenters must be taken into account. Architectural features may need emphasizing ; Other features may require disguising.
Personal idiosyncrasies of clients need respecting, and a host of other special requirements need taking into account.
All these, it may be noted, are points altogether apart from workmanship or technique, and are often overlooked by good craftsmen, but no amount of good detail or workmanship is a substitute for the proper and due recognition of them. The failure to appreciate their importance will lead to error, misconception, and dissatisfaction.
Practical Application. As an illustration of the simplicity with which these considerations apply themselves in practice, it may be useful to glance rapidly through an ordinary dwellinghouse which, we assume, has to be re-painted. It will then be seen that, though apparently it is a difficult matter to remember, and to apply so many principles to an ordinary job, the difficulties vanish on the approach and application of a little commonsense reasoning.
First, the outside of the house will be exposed to wet, heat, and frost. To meet these demands the work must be finished in hard, glossy colour with a good body ; each coat must be thoroughly dry before the next is applied. The colours chosen must be of a permanent character, those having the greatest weather-resisting properties being preferable. We must remember that the destructive action of the elements will commence upon the surface. In the colouring, allowance must be made for the action of the weather, and also for the surrounding brick, tile, slate, or stone.
The Entrance Door should be particularly well finished, as being the first thing that the visitor to the house sees and examines.
Upon entering the house, the remarks that apply to the entrance door will hold good in regard to the hall. Effort should be made here to convey an impression of comfort, warmth, and homeliness. It should, moreover, be a reflex of the tastes and character of its owner. Any undue parade of gilding or expensive ' material will impart an unpleasant air of chilling grandeur and ostentation, which better befits a public building than a home. The display of wealth should be reserved for more pi'ivate apartments. The colouring of the hall should be low in tone and richly quiet in effect, suggesting comfort and even opulence, but forming a simple contrast to the entertaining and other rooms opening out of it. The finish of the work should be hard
8 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
and durable, with, few ledges upon which dust can accumulate, as it will be less shut in than the rooms.
If there is a Vestibule before entering the hall proper, it may be safely treated in brighter colouring, as it will be a mere passage-way, and a little extra brightness or even hardness will not offend the eye in passing by to the same extent that it would do in a room where we have to stay for a length of time. Here again, the colour should have a hard and durable surface, readily washable, as it will be more exposed to dirt than the hall.
In the Lining-Room^ the surroundings may be so treated as tc be redolent of cheery comfort and prosperity. Full-toned, rich, juicy colouring and decided treatment will give the necessary effect (see coloured plate No. II.). As the time spent in the room is not of long continuance, we may indulge in fairly decided hues without fear of tiring the eyes. Again, as the room will be much used at night, we must make allowances in colouring which will be determined in character and extent by the kind of artificial light used, a subject which will have attention in a later chapter. The ornament, too, may be so selected as to be especially appropriate to the room ; not necessarily consisting of bunches of game and vegetables, but yet in harmony with the fact that the room is principally used for eating and drinking. A great charm in old work is the evidence of thought and meaning, without vulgar parade of facts, which results in appropriate symbolism only noticeable to the thoughtful and initiated.
Next we come to the Drawing-Boom. Here we have quite a different key to work in lightness, grace, cheerful brightness, and free play for fancy a room used for work, music, dancing, reading, and other recreations, giving unlimited scope for the absence of conventionalism. It is par excellence the ladies' room, and in its decoration we may cultivate a certain femininity of style, without weakness, in pretty contrast to the more masculine treatment accorded to the dining-room. Here, too, we have less rough wear and tear than in any room in the house. The presence of nic-nacs and bric-a-brac tends to more care in cleaning, We may, therefore, use our most delicate tints without fear of their being injured, and indulge in fine and beautiful surfaces. In this room the afternoon and evening are usually spent, and light colours will assist the light. They must also, of necessity, be used as a fitting background to delicately tinted evening dresses, and as a foil to the complexions of the ladies ; hence we carefully avoid hot colours as salmon or terra-cotta, and prefer soft greens, greys, or delicately broken yellows.
THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 9
The Breakfast or Morning-Room next compels attention. Cheerful hues should here aid in raising the spirits and setting the keynote for the day. Neither too heavy nor too light, the colour and ornament should be healthily contrasted, suggestive of life and motion. All effects of colour conducive to somnolence should be avoided. If a foliage paper is introduced, let it represent a vigorous, upward, spring-like growth and freshness ; and avoid autumn leaves and winter stems, drooping, heavyscented flowers, and drowsy colouring. We are hardly as conscious as we should be of the powerful influences of little things in our surroundings. The eye, more than any other sense, conveys its impressions with electric force and rapidity, and with a certainty of result which we are slow to trace to its real
The Library and Study will each in its turn suggest thoughtful and sober treatment. Here we may use tertiary colouring and forms without a disturbing or startling element. The decoration should not court attention, but it should be so studied in form and meaning as to lead the mind back by suggestion to books. Quotations and mottoes will not be out of place, especially if they embody the ideas and principles of the master of the house.
General quotations that apply anywhere are not to be recommended, nor is it good taste to exhibit moral injunctions in the guise of quotations, unless in nurseries, schoolrooms, or children's rooms. The colouring should not be heavy and depressing, but of a medium depth.
Next in reference to these rooms generally, one may be very lofty and another too low ; they may be badly lighted, or too gaunt and cheerless by reason of large windows. All these, and similar faults, must be, to the best of the decorator's power, corrected and improved by his colouring and treatment.
The Bedrooms will also engage the same kind of attention. Their treatment must be cleanly, airy, and cheerful, not too insistent, and forming a good contrast to the staircase and landings. Purity of tint and freshness of colour will attain this end. The free ventilation must not be interfered with by cooping up windows. The surface of the walls must not be too absorbent. The size and paste used should be deodorised and sterilised by the addition of a little carbolic acid, essence of cloves, or some other similar purifier. All traces of minute fungus growths must be removed by thoroughly washing the walls. Musty and mouldy odours must be traced and their causes removed. In this connection it is well to remember that all
10 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
cupboards should be ventilated. The painted work must be made easily washable, and all crevices likely to hold dust or to encourage moth or insect life should be scrupulously filled up. Patterns of disturbing element and pronounced line, or of an angular tendency, should be discarded.
In the Children's Nursery or Bedrooms all these points need more emphatic attention, and especially the matters of colour and surface finish. A sanitary paper which can be sponged, or something equally durable and washable, should run up as high as the hands of the children can reach. Enamel or varnish finish is best for the wood- work. White or light wood- work that shows finger marks and dirt will have an educational value which will repay the trouble of-occasionally sponging them off and lead to the use of handles and finger plates, besides having a cheerful and purifying effect on the senses. The presence of plenty of white surface in the nursery enables the eye to discern colour, improves the sight, temperament, and digestion, stimulates the exercise of the muscles, and materially improves the circulation of the blood and general health, especially if it be judiciously present in conjunction with pure tints and cheerful bits of good colouring. This fact has long been recognised on the Continent and applied to the manufacture of toys, and is being more and more acknowledged and acted upon by scientists and medical men. This subject will receive more attention in a later chapter.
Economy in Working. The relation between real economy and fitly applied decoration has already been noticed in its bearing upon the client. It is equally important to note that economy of procedure has an important bearing on the workman, and is directly dependent upon the use of method, order, and cleanliness. This will be shown in detail as each part of the work involved is discussed, but the present place is most suitable for general remarks on this important aspect of house painting. Haphazard work the taking of things as they come, and the absence of a specific order of procedure is responsible for dissatisfaction, loss of time, the breaking of engagements, and often bankruptcy ; but what more concerns us at present is that it is absolutely impossible to obtain good results in workmanship without attention to these points. The following short rules will, therefore, perhaps be found helpful :
The best order in which to carry on the various parts of the work, so that each portion is prevented from exerting any damaging effect upon that which is previously finished, must be studied. The work must be so arranged that dust is absent
PLATE 2.-DECORATION OF HOUSE-FRONT ABOVE SHOP. To face p. 10.]
THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 11
when wet paint is about, that paint is dry when papering is being done, that floors are not wet when we are varnishing, and that many other similar contretemps are avoided. Rooms must be finished in such order that it is not necessary to carry on work in them, or traffic through them, after they are completed. The work should commence, in theory, at the farthest point from the front door, and be completed in due sequence, until the painter finds himself outside.
The external painting of windows, &c., should be done before the inside of the room is finished.
In painting a room the work that involves the use of steps, &c., should be done first.
Cleanliness in Working, Then comes the great question of cleanliness in working. All fittings should be carefully covered or removed before commencing work, and not after they are already soiled. There should be no unnecessary moisture put on the floors in stripping walls or washing down, even though apparently it can do no harm. Splashes and spots must be avoided, even though the floors are covered up, and the hands and clothes kept religiously free from paint.
Trade and Health. As an occupation, the painter's is one of the healthiest in the building trades, providing only that moderate cleanliness is observed in person and habits. It has been proved beyond doubt that the volatile products given off by oils, &c., used in painting are not only innocuous, but beneficial. That white lead in particles does not mingle with the air we breathe ; that the smell arising even from the use of arsenical colours is equally non-poisonous ; and that the only possible methods of introducing painters' poisons into the system are through the pores of the skin by the totally unnecessary handling of the pigments, and through the mouth by eating food with painty hands, are all facts well known to scientists.
Causes of Bad Health among Painters. There are a few prevalent favourite methods of useless " self-sacrifice " that may be here noted.
First, the use of tools and brushes with unclean handles, by which the paint on the handle is deliberately forced into the pores of the skin of fingers and hands. There is no excuse for this dirty, but common, practice. The handles should be scraped clean with a sharp bit of glass or a steel scraper, working from the bristles, and should then be coated with knotting.
Second, the filthy habit of putting the hands into colour when mixing, a habit as unnecessary and absurd as any in the trade, but clung to by ancient and thoughtless practitioners as a sort of fetish.
12 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
Third, the use of the finger and thumb nails in lieu of a knife for scraping off spots of white lead and other matters, frequently followed by biting the nails.
Fourth, and perhaps most prolific of danger, the use of white lead putty, and stopping with the hands instead of with a knife and stopping board.
Fifth, the rubbing down of white lead filling in a dry condition, with consequent inhalation of dust.
Sixth, a general aversion to soap and water, and sometimes the substitution therefor of turps and oil, which serve the better to convey the poisonous particles into the perspiratory system.
These points will mostly come up for discussion later, but deserve a place at the front, hence their mention here.
Clients' Requirements. In conclusion, it must not be supposed that the painter will always find it possible to give the rein even to his rightly-guided instinct in matters of taste and detail. Clients' requirements have to be studied, as well as the personal prejudices of the untrained.
The wise painter, therefore, has to find a via media betwixt what he believes to be the correct treatment and what his client requires, and will best consult his own interests and those of his client by bringing the one into harmony with the other that is, by doing what his client actually requires in what lie knows to be the best way, rather than by endeavouring to press his own views too persistently, always remembering that in matters of mere technique it is due to his self-respect to have hia own wsy.
PLATE 3.-PANEL8 DESIGNED FOR NATURALISTIC COLOUR TREATMENT.
To face p. 12.1
13
CHAPTER II.
is necessary to deal briefly with the accommodation requisite for workshop and stores, and the manner of arranging and managing them to the best advantage.
The class of premises used, the particular exigencies of town and country work and available space, and the various classes of business involved, all serve to make it impossible to admit of precise description ; but in so far as the practices recommended here will be based upon, and assume the existence of efficient accommodation, it is perhaps as well to detail what may be regarded as quite necessary, and to indicate the more important desiderata in a well regulated establishment.
Economy of Proper Storage Boom. In the first place, it will be desirable to have two separate shops and an additional store room for materials; which will be called, respectively, the paint shop, the painting room, and the stores. A paved and covered yard or shed should be retained for the
14 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
plant and appliances, as it is important that ladders, poles, and planks should be kept dry. As indicating the importance of small matters of this kind, it can be shown that many tons a year are saved upon the cartage account of a large establishment by the use of a covered place for storage of planks and poles. On one occasion a large consignment of scaffolding was sent from London to a church in the country in a wet and sodden state. After standing in the dry for some weeks it was re-consigned to London, and the difference in cost for carriage was nearly two pounds sterling. In many such ways the adoption of careful, methodical, and orderly ways of managing a business conduces to the saving of money.
The Paint Shop. The paint shop must be quite 24 feet long by 14 feet wide, and a room of this proportion will be found more convenient, if properly lighted, than a squarer form of shop.
Position. It should be on the ground floor, for the convenience of taking in heavy goods, and generally facilitating the removal of material in and out.
Lighting. It must be well lighted; this is an absolute necessity, and may be regarded as of the very first importance. In the winter months, gas, or artificial light of some kind, will be requisite. A T pendant in the centre, and a couple of side brackets will suffice, fitted with good incandescent burners. An ideal shop should have side lights all along the north side. Roof and sky-lights are an abomination, as besides the danger of breakage by stones or hail, experience proves that wet and dust at times will come in, and that spiders and flies have a particular partiality for dropping from them. But more to the purpose, the direct sky-light, changing as it does in character from hour to hour, is deceptive and difficult to work under if making and matching tints. It is too glaring and strong to be a comfortable working light. The north is the best side for lights if it can be so arranged ; and if these are set at a slight angle out of the perpendicular viz., the lower portion of the sashes set out 4| to 6 inches further than the tops, the lighting can hardly be improved upon. The sashes can be hinged at the top, and open otitwards for ventilation.
Must be Dry. The shop must be a dry one, as many materials deteriorate if kept in a damp atmosphere.
Water. A supply of water will be required, with sink and waste.
Heating Arrangements. A gas stove or fireplace in a safe corner. A shut-in stove is safest, but the danger of fire, if
WORKSHOP AND STORES. 15
ordinary care is used, is more remote than at first appears, as but few of the ordinary materials are inflammable without actual and purposeful ignition. The fireplace or gas stove will be required for heating water, size, glue, paste, &c., and should be large enough and strong enough to hold a glue kettle or a 3-gallon bucket.
Ceiling. The ceiling, if there is a room above, must be dusttight, and not mere open joists and ordinary floor-boards, or the dust will percolate through, and the colours will need continual straining.
Colouring. It should be white in colour, to assist tbe light. The floor should be of stone or concrete. It is immaterial whether the walls be of feather-edge board or brick, so long as they are solid and dust-tight. They are whitened, as, though there will be little of them seen, it is as well to get all tbo additional light that can be reflected from them.
Fittings and Furniture. The fittings necessary will be strong shelves, a cupboard or two, and strong benches.
First, a long bench under the windows, about 2 feet 8 inches high and 2^ feet wide, with stout supports, will be the mixing bench. It should be furnished with three paint stones. These may be slabs of Purbeck or other hard even-grained marble, or French burrstone, without flaws, about 2 feet square and 1| inches thick. One of the three may be smaller, and of white marble, for use for fine bits of colour. A cheaper substitute for a marble slab is a sheet of stout plate glass set in white lead to make it solid. To keep it in place, a fillet of wood may be screwed to the bench on each side. This will also protect it from being chipped. Rough cast plate will do if levelled by rubbing with coai-se emery and another piece of thick glass till an even surface is produced. The front edge of the stones should be set level with the edge of the bench. A muller will be required for each stone, as, although every colour can be purchased ready ground for use, the good workman will often prefer to grind his own in special mediums for special jobs, and is not always satisfied with the degree of fineness attained in the paint mill. It is also unnecessary to keep such a comprehensive stock when the means for grinding up a bit of special colour are handy and familiar. Beneath each stone there should be a drawer for material for cleaning the bench. Cotton waste or odd rags are used for this purpose, but the most efficacious and most lasting material, one which never seems full of paint, and which does not ignite if heated by long confinement in the drawer, is a material known in the old-fashioned trade as " shreds." Whether commercial
16 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
and economical development has or has not driven it out of the market at a price within the painters' scope for such a purpose is uncertain, but of its absolute efficacy and cleanly application and power of absorption there is no doubt. It was obtained from curriers, and appeared to be the dressings or scrapings from the interior sides of the coarser hides. Cotton rags or waste, when saturated with oil, are a fruitful source of fires by spontaneous combustion, and should be shunned unless they can be cleared out periodically under skilled supervision.
Colours, Driers, Oils, &c., required on Paint Bench The space at the back of the stone will be the place for small kegs of tinting colours available for use when mixing. Ochres, Umbers, Sienna, Venetian and Indian reds, red lead, vegetable black, and Prussian blue should be kept there, within easy reach of the hand. Space between the stones at the back will accommodate patent driers and white lead, of which a small keg should be specially set apart for the same purpose, as the frequent dipping of palette knives into the large casks is liable to soil the contents and disturb them unnecessarily. Upon the paint-mixing bench we shall also require small hand cans, spouted for pouring, to hold raw and boiled oil, terebine, turpentine, and a generally useful varnish for adding to colour. Plenty of room must be left between the paint stones for standing and straining the colours that are being made up.
Drawers to Paint Bench for Tools. Narrow drawers between the paint-stone drawers will be useful to hold the mixing or palette knives, a piece or two of pumice stone for cleaning off any hard spots that dry upon the stone, and for occasionally cleaning down the stone thoroughly in addition to the general wiping down after use, a few clean rags, pieces of straining muslin of different degrees of fineness and string, also a hammer, tacks, a screw-driver, shears or large scissors, a cork screw, a cask opener, a case opener, odd corks and bungs, taps for racking off the oil and turps, and many other odds and ends that experience will dictate.
Palette Knives for Paint Stone. There should be a pair of palette knives to each stone, of from 8 to 1 2 inches long in the blades, for different quantities of colour.
To Clean Paint Stone. A word may be interposed here on the method of cleaning down the slabs after use. Expert handling of the palette knives will leave the stone almost clean enough to dine from, but it may be stained by strong colours, as Prussian blue ; or varnish or turps colour may stick near the edges. To thoroughly clean, put a little whiting on the stone and rub it up
1S97
PLATE 4.-RANEL8 DESIGNED FOR FLAT NATURALISTIC COLOURING.
To face p. 16.]
WORKSHOP AND STORES.
17
in a little raw linseed oil, work it over the surface with the muller as if grinding colour ; collect and take it up with the knives, and put it into the keg reserved for odd bits of light colour. This will leave stone, knives, and muller all clean, and a wipe over with the " shreds," or a rag, or cotton waste does the rest.
Brush Trays. On the bench near the stones a place must be set apart for the brushes. A tray of zinc, divided into sections by bars across the top, and large enough to hold the number of brushes generally in use, must be provided. It should be 5 inches deep, so that the brushes may be suspended in the water and not rest on the bottom. This is accomplished by boring holes through the handle or stock of the brushes or tools, and slipping a piece of steel wire through the hole, the ends of which will rest upon the divisions of the tray. The holes must be bored at a height which will permit the whole of the bristles to be in the water. A tinned tray or an iron one will rust and corrode. Zinc is the best material, as it can be easily scraped free from paint, and will withstand the action of water, turps, or oil. A smaller tray may be provided for Fi g- L Skeleton elevation of i i i , -i smutch-can. A, Inner can. B,
brushes kept in oil. Outer can. 0, Mouth of toner
In putting away the brushes, it can . j^ Sloping top of inner can is well to scrape as much paint as to prevent splashing. E, Filter possible out of them and rinse them of perforated zinc to prevent in turps, otherwise the water will * hi k tur P s , Corking up from f,' ., . ,, . , , bottom. The turps will reach
cause the oil m the paint to congeal up to the dotted H e F
and become "furred" in the brushes.
Brash Washer or Smutch-can. For the purpose of washing the brushes, smutch-cans or rinsers will be necessary. A double galvanised or tinned iron kettle made as in Fig. 1 will be a good form. The inner kettle has a bottom of perforated copper or copper gauze, the top edge is sufficiently sharp to scrape the edge of the brushes or to free them from excess of turps, and overhangs to prevent splashing. The perforated bottom allows all solid matter to pass through and settle, and prevents it from working up again. After scraping the brushes out on the stone, thoroughly rinse them in the turps in the smutch-can. It is
"
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V;> ^ll"
IS.*&
B
18 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
a good plan to have one for preliminary rinsing, and a second for cleaner turps. To thoroughly rinse, whirl the brush round in the turps, by spinning the handle between the palms of the hands. To free it from turps, do the same thing, but keep the brush higher so that it does not touch the turps. A further spinning in an empty can or keg will leave the brush almost dry, in which condition it is safe to put it into the water tray. Varnish brushes may be treated in a similar way before being stood in oil, but they will be fully dealt with under the heading of brushes.
Zinc Covering for Paint Bench. The spaces between the paint stones, if covered with stout zinc, will be kept much cleaner, and scrape and clean down more readily than if left in the bare wood. Stout No. 11 gauge zinc will be suitable; allow the zinc to go under the stones, dress it square over the edge of the bench, and nail to the edge.
Ready-made Colours. All colours that it is possible to make up at the shop should be sent to the job ready for use, except thinning, but of course this only applies to jobs near the shop.
Large Kegs. Under the paint bench, a suitable place may be found for large kegs of colour, casks of whitelead and driers, barrels of ochre and Umber, &c., from which the smaller kegs on the paint bench are kept supplied.
Drawers for Powder Colours. A nest of drawers will be found truly economical for powder colours. The drawers should vary in size, and be easily pulled out; each drawer should have an all-round solid partition dividing it from the other drawers to prevent an inter-mixture of the colours. They may have lids, but this is not material if the drawers are selfcontained. They should not be too large, as they can be replenished frequently from the stock in stores. The great advantage accruing from the use of drawers is, that the drawers can be taken across to the stone or bench, thus avoiding the carrying of dips of dry colour on the tip of the knife, and consequent waste. Where the dry colours are kept in bulk in casks, there is generally a series of coloured tracks on the floor between the casks and the paint stone. Another gain is the cleanliness and freedom from dust and grit in the colour. In sending dry colour to a job, on no account send it in paper packages. Tin canisters should be collected and set aside for the purpose.
Weighing Machine and Scales. A weighing machine for heavy goods, and scales and weights for lighter packages, are necessary. These should not only be in the shop, but their use should be
WORKSHOP AND STORES. 19
insisted on, and all goods coming in or going out should be weighed and entered.
Rough Day-book. For this purpose a rough day-book should be placed on a small desk in close proximity to the scales, and near the door. This is not a manual on book-keeping, even for painters, but it may be noted with emphasis that the initial stage of book-keeping begins here. One book, always at hand, fixed (like a chained Bible) if desired, must contain a record of everything that goes in or out of the shop and stores. Material, tools, plant, or objects to be, or that have been, painted, must all be set down in the order they occur, with the date and name of destination or derivation. The sorting off of these various items is a matter for the clerks at a future stage.
Oil Tanks. In a place removed from the tire or stove, tanks are required for the oils one for raw linseed, and one for boiled oil, and a couple for turps. It is generally the practice to buy two kinds of turpentine. One, the best Russian; and the other, American. Sometimes French is also stocked. These should not be mixed, as they have special qualities which, if kept separate, are valuable under different sets of circumstances. The tanks should hold about 120 gallons each or more. Square tanks take least room. Wood, zinc-lined, and with taps near bottom, or galvanised iron are the best. The advantages of large tanks are many. One is, that as the oil is generally new it becomes matured by being stored in bulk for a little time. Another, that by mixing the different consignments a more uniform quality is maintained ; and another, that the contents of the barrels can be checked and examined when they are racked ; there is thus an avoidance of much waste.
Whiting and Plaster Bins. A large box or bin for the whiting must be set in a dry corner, and smaller ones for the plaster and Parian cement, mastic, and sand, Portland cement, Fig. 2. Paint mill.
Cupboard. A cupboard may be retained for the brushes not in use, and another for glasspaper, glue, concentrated size, special colours, &c.
Pigeon Holes. A set of pigeon holes to hold artists' colours in large 1-lb. tubes (now so much sold for tinting purposes) will be requisite, if there is much good work done in the shop. Each hole should be plainly marked with the colour it contains.
Paint Mill. A paint mill (Fig. 2) is desirable for grinding up rough colour, making hard stopping, and other like purposes.
WORKSHOP AND STORES. 21
A small sized one, to hold about 28 Ibs. of white lead, will be sufficient. One constructed to grind on the cone principle, with a side handle, can be easily screwed to one end of the paint bench.
Other small conveniences will be mentioned under the various headings for which they are required, and need not be specially referred to here.
The Painting Room. The painting room will next be considered. This apartment is required for the purpose of working in, as its name implies.
There are a large number of small jobs which have to be done in the shop, such as the painting of signs, the writing of facia glasses and advertisement boards, the painting of fittings and furniture, gilding, and other matters of a similar kind. There are also many operations which it would be better and more profitable to do in the shop, which are at present muddled through on the job for want of proper accommodation, such as the decoration of material, the preparation of drawing pounces and stencils, and priming of new work prior to fixing.
The size of the room should be larger than that of the paint shop and of a similar shape. It must be well lighted and, preferably, in the same manner. A first-floor room above the paint shop and stores would present many advantages over a ground floor. The floor of the room should be of wood and the walls and ceiling whitened. The remarks made as to the character of the ceiling and the absence of sky-lights apply with no less force in the painting room than in the paint shop.
Wall for Large Cartoons, &c One wall that is well lighted will require to be boarded with close, flush-jointed boards of 1 inch in thickness, for the purpose of working painted canvasses, banners, cartoons, or large drawings upon, or for the tacking-up lengths of anaglypta or linoleum for decorating.
Benches and Drawers. Under the windows a fixed bench oi convenient height may be placed, about 2 feet 8 inches high, running the length of the room. It may be supported upon pedestals of drawers for holding stencil plates and drawings, pounces and cartoons. These drawers should be 3 feet 6 inches long and the full depth of the bench from back to front, which should be not less than 30 inches. Shorter drawers may be arranged between these, allowing sufficient room for working at the bench upon stools with the knees under it. They will be required for a few materials, as gilding, writing, and stencilling tools and materials, gold leaf and metals, bronzes, special colours, gelatine, isinglass, cotton wool, and numerous articles of this kind.
22
PAINTING AND DECORATING.
Reference Books. A few books of reference and examples of lettering may be usefully kept in them.
A bar from pedestal to pedestal may be fixed as a foot-rest. Gas. The gas brackets should be fitted to the window frames, and have universal swivel joints to bend in any direction. Shades made from tin, coloured white upon the inside and green upon the outside (with Duresco not paint), will be required for writing and gilding in the winter evenings. The shades must be removable.
Portable Benches. Other benches will be required, but it is convenient to have them portable, as at times the floor space will be required for furniture, or even for setting out upon. It
is specially useful for planning panelled ceilings, so as to arrive at the exact templates for stencils and pounces. The benches will, therefore, take the form of trestles and boards; 6 trestles of the form shown in Fig. 3 will suffice. A piece of 4J-inch x 3-inch deal, 40 inches long, forms the top of each, and three supporting legs are halved into this, or, better still, dovetailed at such an angle that the legs stand 9 inches apart on the floor in the clear, two on the outside and one on the inside. The inch yellow deal boards upon They should be all about
Fig. 3. Portable bench trestle.
boards are tongued and grooved
battens of the same thickness.
40 inches wide, and differ in length from 15 feet to 5 feet.
There may be four or five of them. The battens should be
screwed on so that they can be easily taken off and re-clamped,
as they shrink or twist.
Paint Stone Muller and Knives A small paint slab say 18 inches circular, will be handy, provided with a glass muller and a pair of 8-inch knives.
Sign- Writers' Easels. For the convenience of sign-writing, one or two common easels will be necessary. For heavy signs, a good plan is to have a couple of primitive easels made as follows : Two 9-feet lengths of 3 inches by 1| inches are fastened together by battens nailed across at top and bottom, leaving them a clear space 1^ feet across, and forming a rectangu-
WORKSHOP AND STORES. 23
lar frame. In the long sides of this frame, f-inch holes are bored for stout pegs of oak. These easels will lean against the walls at any angle, and will hold any shape or proportion of sign, as two or three of them can be used in conjunction. They are also handy for lengths of lincrusta, which may be tacked to the battens ; they are then easily stood in any position, and in front of each other without rubbing.
Entrance Ways. The room must have a sufficiently large doorway to admit articles of furniture or large boards, and, if it be an upper floor, it is best to have an outside staircase with good large double doors at the top. If, on the other hand, a small staircase exists indoors, there may be an arrangement of casements, and a pulley block or crane above them, so that work may be taken in and out with as little danger of damage as possible.
Shelves. A few shelves will be requisite, also a cupboard or two to keep colour clean and free from dust, when in use from day to day.
Heating. A heating stove is necessary ; a close coke one will be found safest and most convenient.
Stores. The next room for consideration is the store room, or stores. It must be a dry room on the ground floor, in which a fairly equable temperature of about 60 can be maintained. If possible, it should adjoin the paint shop, so as to save time and labour in transferring goods from one to the other. But little light is necessary ; indeed, for many materials, an excess of light is undesirable.
Fittings. The whole four sides of the room may be shelved for varnishes and japans, kegs of colour, and other items of stock. A few drawers are desirable for small articles, sash tools, stencil tools, sponges, leathers, &c. Brushes, dusters, limers, and distemper brushes should be hung from the ceiling in bunches of 3 dozens For this purpose, and to accommodate new cans or kettles and buckets, the whole of the ceiling may be fitted with rows of galvanised hooks, like those used by butchers and in larders.
The upper shelves should be kept for articles requiring a particularly dry place. Glasspaper, concentrated size, and glue will come under this denomination, as will dry colours, lacquers, and spirit varnishes, knotting, &c. Then below these will come the oil varnishes, japan, stainers, enamels, &c., and below these the oil colours and colours ground in water, and heavier goods. On the floor, which should be of stone or concrete, we place the heaviest goods casks of white lead, driers, Umber, and ochre,
24 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
barrels of oils and turps, firkins of powder colour, and kegs of Duresco, paint-remover, and other like matters.
Use. The stores should be used for goods in unbroken packages only. Each particular article should be represented in the paint shop as well as in the stores. If this is done, the value of the stock can be much more readily ascertained. In the stores only whole packages are retained, rendering stocktaking easy.
The stock in use in the paint shop consists entirely of partlyused packages, which, it is safe to assume, are upon an average half full. As the assortment of goods in use in the paint shop will not materially vary, it can always be taken to be "as before," the real difference in value being in the actual stores.
Keturn of Empty Packages. As each cask or package is emptied of its contents it must be headed and hooped up and set aside for sending back to the manufacturer, and as soon as a sufficient quantity is got together to make a consignment, they should be despatched. This should be done at least once a quarter.
Storing of Parts of Cases. A bin under the paint shop bench can be reserved for lids, heads, and portions of packing-cases that have to be removed and ultimately returned, as, if the shop is kept properly clean and the goods are to be easily got at, these will not be required during the use of the contents, except in special cases where it is desirable to exclude the air from the contents.
Putting up Material for a Job. A word or two may fitly
be added here on sending material to a job. All jobs repeat themselves to a greater or less degree. A general list may, therefore, be made of the materials usually required, to be supplemented as occasion demands. It may be divided under the heads of outside painting, inside painting, paper-hanging, and distempering.
All the usual tinting colours should always be included, as it is not possible to know exactly what may be required. If the lists are printed ones, a large column may be left for filling in the quantities of each article. In making out the list it will only be necessary to mark one or two articles, as the others will follow in proportion. Thus, the quantity of whitelead for an inside job will govern the quantity of staining colours, oil, driers, turps, terebine, putty, and glass paper, unless under the existence of special conditions.
In these special cases the list could be marked first for the normal and afterwards for the extra quantity of any given
WORKSHOP AND STORES. 25
article. Thus, if the bulk of the painting were white and the job would take 2 cwts., the list would be marked for ^ cwt., which would carry the necessary amount of et ceteras, and in the extras column it would be again marked 1J cwts. whitelead extra, which would infer extra thinnings, but no extra stainers.
Or, again, a job requires extra quantities of Indian red and black, the whitelead entry would carry a certain amount of each as stainers and the extra column would ask for, say, 14 Ibs. black extra and 28 Ibs. Indian red extra, which would infer the extra oil necessary for them.
The great value of having a set form or general list is that, by this method, small items are not forgotten. Such items as varnishes, papers, &c., must, of course, be particularised.
Despatch of Material for a Job. The storekeeper or paint shop clerk, who superintends the sending out of stuff, must keep a stock of necessaries ready to hand for prompt despatch. A supply of clean pots and cans should also be always in hand. Empty bottles and jars should be stored in an odd corner, and when returned dirty must be at once put into the pickle and allowed to clean themselves.
Management Of Paint Shop. Before leaving the subject, it is as well to deal briefly with the economic side of the paint shop management.
Waste. A considerable amount of waste is the unwitting result of ignorance and thoughtlessness, but the direct waste in this way is even less than the waste of labour and the unsatisfactory results of injudicious attempts at economy.
Returned Residuum Paint. On every job, however well it may be regulated, there will be a certain amount of residuum. This does not always depend upon the skill with which the job is managed, but is frequently due to the character of the job in hand. The less varied the class of work in a given job, the more likelihood will there be of a large amount of waste colour. In a job of mixed character there will be plenty of opportunities for using up the odds and ends. An inside job of painting, if it be confined to the principal rooms, will of necessity result in this overplus, and unless it be intelligently dealt with on its return to the shop it will be wasted or worse than wasted.
Fat Colour and Smudge. Paint, after being thinned for use with a proper quantity of driers and spirits, soon becomes partially oxidised, and, consequently, viscid and greasy. This is partially due to the exposure to the atmosphere, with the consequent loss of the more volatile portions of the oils and the rapid absorption of oxygen ; and partly to the chemical action
26 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
of the added driers, and sometimes of the pigments upon each other. This explains why paints sold prepared ready for immediate use seldom prove satisfactory, even if of tolerably good quality as far as the ingredients go. Such paint is technically known as " fat." Fat colour has thus lost some of its power of hardening, is bad in drying, and most readily softens under ordinary heat. In practice it will be difficult to spread, and, consequently, more turpentine is added, which, when evaporated, leaves behind it further resinous matter, so that the amount of gummy matter in the paint is more than necessary for the binding and cohesion of the pigment, and prevents it hardening off. Most of the returned colour that comes to the paint shop will be of this character, and the larger part of it will probably be colour that has been mixed with a large quantity of turpentine, which, when fat, is more unmanageable than fat oil colour.
It will be perceived from these remarks that "fat" colour in the condition in which it is returned is only available for the very roughest of outside work. Even when treated, it is not capable of so hardening as to make it a safe paint for work likely to be much handled, or for work which is situated in direct sunlight. It will not dry dead or flat.
Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge. The method recommended for putting it to the best use is to first throw it together in kegs kept for the purpose one for light tints, one for medium tints, and one for dark shades. All blues should be kept together separately, as the addition of blues will render the other warm tints useless. It must be allowed to settle, and a lid placed over it to retard "skinning." The tops may then be skimmed off and used for grinding up with common dry colours for outside painting, a little turpentine being added to free the "fat" oils.
The bottoms or settlings will be useful for priming, if thinned with turpentine, excepting for very good work or for first coating new plaster or stucco, painting rough unwrought timber, or rough brick walls, outside painting under eaves and outhouses, &c., always bearing in mind that it must be thinned with turpentine, as there is already a plethora of oils present.
Thinnings for Smudge. For thinning all "fat" colour, the cheaper grades of turpentine and substitutes for the same are even better than the best commercial turps, because they volatilise more completely, and leave less resinous gum behind ; for new paints, however, they are useless, as the absence of this resin means absence of binding properties. In the fat
PLATE 5.-RANELS DESIGNED FOR FLAT POLYCHROMATIC COLOURING, To face p. 26.]
WORKSHOP AND STORES. 27
colour there is already enough binding medium, and all that is required is a thinner, to enable the paint to be spread easily and evenly, which, after fulfilling this purpose, volatilises rapidly, leaving little or no residuum.
The same quality, or absence of quality, fits these commoner spirits, for the purpose of brush washing. They are more penetrating and solvent in their action than a good turpentine, and where turps is given as the best medium for cleaning certain brushes, cheap grade turps may be used with advantage.
Prevention of Skinning and Hardening of Stock Colours. It should not be necessary to point out that all waste caused by allowing colours in their paste form to harden or skin over is easily preventible. All that is required is to effectually keep the air from them.
On oil colours, pure linseed oil is best for the purpose. The colour should be pressed level, and care must be exercised that it is not stirred up or mixed with the oil in any way. In taking colour from the keg it should be sliced out with a small trowel or similar tool, and not dug out of the middle with the point of the knife. As little oil as will cover the colour should be used, not over half-an-inch in depth, and it may be occasionally changed. Some prefer to use boiled oil or nut oil for the purpose. If the colour remain open for a length of time before getting used up, the lids may be kept over the kegs. They ought also to be kept over all rapidly-drying colours. Certain colours are better bought in collapsible tubes, which we shall refer to in a later chapter.
Colours ground in turps may be kept in condition by turpentine, used in the same way as oil for oil colours, but changed more frequently to prevent "fattening." Water colours may be preserved by covering with water to which a little glycerine has been added.
Whitelead. Whitelead and patent driers are very usually kept under water. If great care is exercised and the water is not allowed to get locked up in the lead by carelessness in taking out portions of lead, it is not objectionable, but, unless the lead is of very stiff and putty-like consistency, there is a danger of the water getting beaten into the whitelead. When water is used, the lead, when required, must be well patted and knocked about on the paint stone, to drive out the water, before any thinners are added to it.
Conservation of Tube Colours, Tube colours, if used very seldom, have a tendency to become "fat" and "leathery." If they are kept in a canister or elsewhere shut in from the air,
28 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
they will remain longer in good condition. Crimson lake has a bad tendency to become "leathery" independent of external conditions, but even this is retarded by keeping the tube in a jar of water.
Stock Articles Enumerated. It will be advantageous to here mention the articles required for stock in a small shop. The various articles will be fully described under the heading of materials, and are merely enumerated here to give an idea of the relative quantities required of each for an average class of business.
List of Stock Required.
1 ton of white lead. 1 cwts. patent driers.
2 barrels turpentine.
1 barrel boiled linseed oil. 1 , , raw linseed oil.
6 gallons terebine. 6 ,, patent knotting.
Oil Colours. 1 cwt. ochre in oil. 1 , , burnt Umber in oil. 4 ,, raw Umber in oil. 4 ,, Indian red in oil. 4 Venetian red in oil. 14 Ibs. Prussian blue in oil. 28 vegetable black in oil. 28 , . Oxford ochre in oil. 28 ,, raw Sienna in oil. 28 , , burnt Sienna in oil. 28 ,, lemon chrome in oil. 14 , , orange chrome in oil.
Putty, Pumice Stone, Cements, dec.
1 cwt. linseed oil putty.
4 ,, lump pumice stone. 14 Ibs. pumice stone powder.
1 ream of glass paper assorted, one half being No. 1 J.
1 ton whiting.
5 cwts. plaster Paris.
2 ,, Parian cement.
2 Portland cement.
2 ,, oil mastic.
\ dry whitelead.
1 ,, dry red lead.
Dry Colours. 1 cwt. dry ochre. 4 dry Venetian red.
WORKSHOP AND STORES. 29
4 cwt. burnt Turkey Umber. 28 Iba. dry lime blue. 7 common ultramarine.
emerald green.
lemon chrome.
vermilion.
Indian red.
lamp black or drop black.
mahogany lake.
drop black ground in turps.
Vandyke brown ground in oil.
burnt Umber in water. ,, Sienna in watar. blue black, raw Sienna, each sundry fancy colours in dry powder and 1 Ib. tubes of fancy
oil colours, as lakes, best blues, yellows, Terra Verte, &c., to
be added as required.
water.
14 Ibs. sugar of lead. 14 litharge.
1 sack good rye flour for paste. 1 cwt. concentrated size. 28 Ibs. best glue. 1000 best deep gold leaf, one-half transferred, and the other in plain
books. 1000 silver leaf.
1 Ib. bronze powders, assorted. 2000 aluminium leaf.
3 gallons lacquers assorted. 14 Ibs. oil gold size. 6 gallons japanners' gold size.
Varnislies.
20 gallons good outside oak varnish. 20 ,, inside
best pale copal
best pale carriage ,,
common hard oak varnish.
each of maple, white copal, encaustic, flatting, and other
special varnishes, best black Japan in quarts. Brunswick black in quarts, best white enamel.
Sundries. 300 paint cans 200 paint pots.
Brushes as required. 5 cwts. white Duresco. 2 liquid ,,
30 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
1 cwt. peacock blue Duresco. 1 ,, lemon yellow. 1 ,, bright red.
(These will make most tints, but if special tints are required in
any quantity they had better be ordered ready-made). 1 ,, laminated lead in sheets. 56 Ibs. filling up powder. 1 cwt. paint remover.
Lamp for burning off paint. 1 dozen paint and distemper strainers.
This will form a useful and sufficiently varied stock from which to carry out any ordinary jobs.
Purchase of Stock. Unless for very large businesses it is the better plan to purchase each article as required irrespective of the rise and fall of the market, and it is hardly necessary to enforce the truism that in all departments the best is really the cheapest. Of course, every rule has its exception, and there may be times when it is provident to buy more largely of a particular material, but the master-painter should not go out of his way to speculate on the rise and fall of values. A thing is not cheap if there is not a fairly immediate use for it. It is not necessary to say more on this head here, as it will be dealt with in detail under materials.
31
CHAPTER III.
|HE plant and appliances required by painters are largely the same as those needed by other branches of the building trade; and the treatment of this branch of the subject will be little more than an enumeration of, and a specification of, the principal items.
Ladders. Ladders come first, both in order of importance and in cost. The form slightly varies in different parts of the country. The ladder best constituted to meet the demands of the general house painter is formed from the two halves of a sound fir pole, lightened down to a size just sufficient to bear the strain of its length. The staves or rounds, sometimes called " rungs," are of ash, oak, or hickory; and for painters maybe placed 10 inches apart from centre to centre. At each ten staves or so, a wrought-iron bolt is inserted, either below or through the stave, and secured by washers and nuts or rivetted over, on the outside of the ladder. Sometimes an iron stave half to three quarters of
32 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
an inch thick is substituted for the oak stave at intervals ; in either case the object is to hold the sides of the ladder together. The width of the ladder between the staves is to some extent regulated by its height, but at the top they must be just wide enough to allow a man to stand with both feet side by side easily. Ladders for general builders are heavier, and the staves are placed more closely together to facilitate the easy ascent with heavy weights. Ladders are required of various lengths, ranging from 10 feet to 60 feet. The most generally useful are from 24 to 40 rounds long. A good ladder should have plenty of spring in it, and both sides should give equally, forming a perfect curve when suspended by its two ends, the curve, of course, being less sharp at the foot end of the ladder than at the top.
Selection. Of two ladders of equal length, the lightest should be preferred, other points being equal ; as in the painting trade no great strain is put upon the ladders. In selecting a ladder, buy it before it is painted, and look for straightness of grain and solidity of wood to the heart. Avoid pithy centred wood or wood that is sappy, in the outer rings especially. Notice that the holes are clean bored for the staves, that the staves fill them properly, and that in wedging the staves the side has not been split or shaken.
Mode of Using. When a ladder is too short for a particular purpose, it is sometimes spliced by lashing another ladder to it. This is done either while the ladders are on the ground, when it is a comparatively simple matter, or after the first ladder has been reared up.
In the first method the long ladder is placed upon the ground, and the shorter one laid upon it. At least six rounds should be covered. The bottom stave of the top ladder should then be firmly lashed to the sixth stave from the top of the lower ladder, and the cords carried up the sides round each stave, bringing the sides of the two ladders firmly together, working over each round to prevent the top ladder slipping, and finishing off by lashing the top stave of the lower ladder to the sixth from bottom of the top one. The lashing must be repeated in an exactly similar manner, so as to obtain equality of tension and spring. Strong flax sash cord are better than scaffold ropes for splicing, as they take less room and leave the rounds clear of encumbrance.
In use, the spliced ladder should be placed so that the top ladder is beneath the lower one that is, the position in which they are laid on the ground is reversed. If this is done there
PI-ATE 6.-SELECTION OF CONTRAST IN PAPER HANGINGS. To face p. 32.]
PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 33
is no obstacle to the ascent, and no trap to catch the unwary when descending, both of which faults occur if the top ladder is in front of the lower one. Another advantage is, that all knots are on the underside, out of the way.
Ladders should be painted with boiled oil. The addition of red or white lead adds materially to the weight. The oil is the true preservative element in paint, and any light pigment may be added merely to give distinctiveness without needlessly adding to the weight of the ladder. In common with all plant, ladders should be lettered with the name and address of the ownei-, both for the sake of easy recognition and for advertisement. They should be branded with a hot iron on every 10 feet, for protection, as the painted name can easily be obliterated. In addition, ladders and steps should always be numbered. This simplifies entering and aids identification.
London painters probably possess the best and longest ladders in the Kingdom. The London form of painter's ladder combines the maximum strength with the minimum weight. Many in use in the West of London are 80 feet in length.
In raising and lowering long ladders considerable variance of procedure exists. The methods are necessarily changed by change of circumstances. Whenever possible a ladder fall or long rope should be used, both for the sake of safety and economy. It is let down from a window or roof, and one end is fastened round the top stave of the ladder. The end of the ladder is placed against the wall, a curb, or is "footed" by a couple of men, and the man at the top hauls in the rope. As soon as the ladder is up, the two men at the foot can guide it into position. A ladder of any length can be easily raised by three men in this way, and an ordinarily long ladder by two. In raising such a ladder without the fall or rope at least four men will be necessary. The two shortest and heaviest men should always foot the ladder, or, if it can be set against a curb, one will suffice at foot. When partly up, the amount of leverage exerted by the long end of the ladder is considerable. The use of a shorter ladder as a crutch to take the weight while the men shift positions or rest is often resorted to in the case of very long or heavy ladders. The fact that by this means a man can reach so much higher than the other men, gives him increased power over the weight and makes his assistance trebly useful.
In connection with the use of ladders the following warnings are necessary: The ladder must be firmly set on both legs. Both top ends must rest equally against the wall or other support. The foot of the ladder must be at such distance from
3
34 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
the wall, that when sprung by pressure upon itself it will not recoil to a vertical position. If the ladder has more than thirty rounds it should be lightly secured by a cord at or near the top. Seen in front elevation it should always be perpendicular. If the ground is not level, one end must be wedged up to make it so.
Ladder Brackets. From ladders to ladder brackets is but a step. There are several patterns, the simplest being the best. One of the simplest consists of a Y-shaped iron, having the split ends of the Y hooked, to clip the stave of the ladder. At the bottom of the Y, or single end, is a ring and chain having a hook at the end. It can be used either over or under the ladder, and is merely hooked on the stave by the double end and the chain hooked a few staves higher up in such a way that the Y-iron forms a horizontal rest for the plank. Another simple form is a fixed triangular bracket, the top of which forms a level bearing for a plank. A turned up end prevents the plank from slipping off, and the side of the triangle which rests against the ladder is continued above the angle and provided with hooks by which it is hooked over the staves of the ladder.
Preference should be given to those forms of plank supports which do not depend upon the strength of one stave of the ladder, and which have no loose working parts, as pins, &c.
Scaffold Poles. For scaffolding halls, public buildings, staircases, &c., a few good scaffold poles are requisite. These should range from 20 feet to 40 feet long. Fir poles are used for the purpose. They should be straight, light, and free from large shakes. A seasoned fir pole always contains a number of small superficial cracks, but these should not extend into the wood below the outer annular rings, and are not to be mistaken for defects.
In selecting poles, notice that the butt end of the pole has not been thinned down, but tapers naturally, gradually, and regularly from butt to top, and that the pole is not too heavy for its length. New poles should be barked, and all roughnesses taken off with a spokeshave. It is a good plan to char the bottom ends of painters' scaffold poles, and to well saturate the top ends with boiled oil and red lead, as they get less use than a general builder's poles, and this plan will preserve them.
Planks. Planks are the next items of importance. Local usages and prejudices prescribe many slight differences in thickness, quality, and breadth.
A plank should be selected for its toughness, lightness, and Stiffness; a large amount of spring in a plank, although indi-
PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 35
cative of strength and toughness, is an element of danger. A springing plank on trestles will sometimes of its own action and recoil, close up and overthrow the trestles before attention has been drawn to the fact that they were closing up. On the other hand, a plank that will not bend is probably a crossgrained one, and will snap off like a carrot if overweighted. Good spruce is better than pine for planks if it be free from large knots. Wood from small trees is the toughest for ordinary work. One and a-half to 2 inches by from 9 inches to 11 inches is a good thickness and breadth, and from 10 to 16 feet in length will be most useful. In selecting a plank, choose a fir or spruce board in which the centre portion of the board has formed the heart of the tree. Long knots running transversely through the board near the ends are useful, as they prevent the ends splitting, but on no account must these knots occur near the centre of the board, or the board will snap across at the knots when under pressure. The portion of the board between the ends should be quite free from large knots. If there are a number of small knots equally distributed so as not to interfere with the free play or spring of the board, they are of no consequence ; indeed, the board will wear better for their presence.
Sometimes it is the practice to clamp the ends of planks with hoop iron, to prevent splitting. This is a clumsy practice not to be recommended for painters' planks. It makes the plank unfit for use in a good house, as, when set down on end, it scratches the floors. The irons are also dangerous to the hands of the workman. They work loose, too, and sometimes trip a man up or tear the clothes. If it be deemed necessary to protect the ends against a tendency to split, a three-eighths of an inch augur hole and a glued dowel in it through the board 3 inches from each end will do so. The corners should be cut off, so that if the board is dropped on one end, it does not get all the force of the blow on the extreme points, a thing which often starts a board to split.
Scaffold Construction. The subject of scaffold construction will not be dealt with in the present work. It is usually left to special hands, who have had special experience, and does not come within the range of ordinary painters' work.
A few self-explanatory sketches of ties and knots which may be of occasional use are, however, given here.
In Pig. 4, 1 and 2 represent the method of tying cross poles or ledgers to uprights, back and front view ; 3 and 4, the method of attaching slings to uprights to take a plank without
36
PAINTING AND DECORATING.
ledgers, the plank resting in the slings, back and front view given ; 5 is the method of tying two ropes together to make a longer one, to use as a ladder fall or for haulage ; 6 and 7 show the method of tying two uprights viz., splicing poles to add to their height, back and front view ; 8 is the same for permanent scaffold, wedged and the ends tucked in ; 6 shows the
Fig. 4. Scaffolding knots and ties.
appearance of this method when seen from the back ; 9 is a suspensory sling used for dropping the pole a stage lower than the supporting ledgers; 10 and 11 show the hitch and half hitch used for hauling poles and planks to the top of the scaffold, a ready method that cannot slip. The technical names for these knots differ with localities.
Trestles. Trestles, or tressels, are double ladders hinged
PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 37
together at the top and arranged for use in pairs to support a plank. Both sides of the trestle being equally available for use, it is not the practice to insert staves on both sides at every step, but to omit one alternately on each side, thereby proportionately lightening and cheapening the construction.
A single trestle or ladder set upright in a fixed frame or stand is used in the Midlands, but the extra thickness required to make the trestle of sufficient strength, and the ungainly shape of the stand at bottom, causes it to compare unfavourably with the ordinary hinged trestle. This trestle cannot be used apart from a plank, and is not easy to ascend and descend.
The trestles in common use appear generally to err on the side of weight and clumsiness. If designed with a more scientific knowledge of construction they might be equally safe and of half the weight. They are frequently set out and made by an ordinary carpenter in his slack time. If made in hard wood they might be less cumbrous and would last longer. No staves, except a stay bar, are required in the lowermost 2 feet, and for high trestles staves 18 inches apart are quite close enough. Some of the trestles and steps used in the north of England are so substantial as to materially interfere with the view of the general effect of the work in progress and the free movement of the men. It occurs to the writer to mention here, as a companion fault, that many decorators have their steps, &c., painted in such a pronounced and assertive fashion as to interfere with one's sense of colour and correct judgment. This should be avoided. The top of the trestles should not be wider than will conveniently hold a wide plank; the bottom should slope out to from 2 to 3 feet, according to the height of the trestle, so as to give stability.
A form ot trestle used on the Continent has much to recommend it. It is especially steady in use; it leaves the wall clear and impedes the worker less than the usual form. The sides are made of ash, lance- wood, or hickory, and are curved to the wellknown Eddy stone lighthouse form. The middle staves are thus shorter and lighter, and the stability is retained. They are hinged at the top in such a way as to be readily disconnected and used singly as short ladders.
Trestles range in height from 6 to 20 feet, the generally useful being from 8 to 10 feet.
Steps. Steps, or step ladders, commonly referred to as a pair of steps, a name generally misapplied, are so common as to need little or no description here.
The fronts, or steps proper, consist of a couple of boards 3 or
38 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
4 inches wide and an inch thick, between which are set flat steps about 9 inches apart, and at such an angle as to be horizontal when the steps are in use. They are kept in position by a back, consisting of two (3 inches by 1 inch) sides framed up to the necessary width by tenoned rails and hinged to a fixed back piece at the top. They are held open at the correct angle by cords passing from the back to the sides of front. Above all is a top board,
Fig. 5. Steps.
rather broader and wider than the steps, but not necessarily more than 6 inches in breadth.
The form and details of steps vary considerably. Fig. 5 shows a usual form. There are a number of patent patterns, but when the wear and tear and other matters are taken into account they do not appear to be equally serviceable to the
PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 39
painter. The old style steps can be readily adapted to various positions, spaces, and uses.
They should be of tine dry pine, light, with strong wroughtiron hinges ; the framing together must be strong and accurate to stand the knocking about it is necessarily subjected to. Strength and lightness combined should be the idea aimed at in selecting a serviceable "steps." The hinges should be of L-form, and fitted on the inside, so that there is no strain on them when the steps are in use. The edges of the top piece and back should be shot on the bevel, so that when the steps are open the weight is taken off the hinges. In practice, in order to economise time, they are more often hinged on the outside, so that all the weight falls upon the hinges, and gradually loosens them. Steps are often made wider at the top than is necessary ; 9 inches between the sides at the top is quite wide enough ; the width at the bottom depending on the height of the " steps."
Cords. Scaffold cords are an important item, being costly if purchased without proper consideration. Good hempen cord prepared by saturation in Stockholm tar is to be preferred for outside work. For indoor work lighter cords without tar are preferable, especially for securing scaffolding to beams, columns, and structural work. A cord made from a number of strands is better than one made of a few. A cord ^ inch in diameter is usually selected for ordinary scaffolding, but practice varies according to the quality used, and a ^-inch cord may be as strong as an inch one. Thin cords are more easily manipulated, and a fine quality |-inch cord will outlast a |-inch cheaper one. Long cords for pulley blocks and ladder falls should not be so tarred as to be stiff. From 50 to 100 feet is their usual length. Tarred ropes must be used for scaffolding which has to be left standing out of doors for months together.
Many special appliances are used in certain districts, and are more or less peculiar to those districts, but our space will not allow us to do more than just mention ne or two of these.
Window Brackets. Window or gallows brackets, to fit on to sills and project over the thoroughfare sufficiently to allow the painter to paint outside sashes, frames, and louvre shutters or sun-blinds, are used in the south of England and in London and the home counties. They are especially useful at seaside resorts, where external sun-blinds are much used. In principle they are merely large brackets ; the back of the bracket rests against the wall outside ; the top plank extends into the room, and a series of holes and pins, or a ratchet attachment, allows a
40
PAINTING AND DECORATING.
second back plank to be adjusted on the inside to the thickness of the wall, which it grips immediately below the window.
Cradles. Cradles or boats are suspended scaffolds for lowering from the roof in narrow streets or busy thoroughfares, thus replacing ladders. They are also useful in cases where buildings overhang rivers, or where glass houses or abutting buildings prevent the use of ladders. They consist of a broad plank slung on iron hangers, with hand rails for protection. A couple of poles are run out from the roof, and pulley-blocks rigged on their ends through which the suspending ropes are worked. The loose ends of the ropes are carried down and are under the control of the men using the cradle, who raise and lower themselves as required.
Pulley Blocks. Pulley blocks have already been referred to. Single and double blocks are required. They are useful for many purposes, as for taking stuff up to the top of the scaffold, the erection of poles, and the erection and striking of scaffolding. Paste Boards. Paste boards and trestles are requisite for the paperhangers. Paste boards are light ^-inch pine boards, 21 inches wide, for cutting and pasting upon. They are usually made from two 11 -inch boards, each 6 feet long, hinged together so as to fold for the convenience of carrying. The ends should be tongued with hard wood tongues. A groove is cut into the
end grain of the board inch wide, and an inch deep, and a piece of oak or ash glued into the groove. The hinges should be brass butts fixed with long fine screws. This allows the board to be used on both sides, and the brass hinges will not rust. Some paste boards are made with ledgered backs and wrought - iron back flap hinges, which are neither so light nor so convenient. Fig. 6.-Paperhanger' S trestle. If both sides are ava ii a bl e
for use one side can be
kept for pasting narrow work and oddments, and the other for work which does not soil the board.
The trestles to hold the boards are made in several ways. The best are small shut up trestles, in pairs ; one for each end
PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 41
of the board, consisting of two light frames each hinged together with webbing or light hinges (Fig. 6). They are compact and firm. Another good form is a collapsible X-shaped trestle (Fig. 7) made from 1-inch by 1^-inch stuff, and pivoted so as to
Fig. 7. Paperhanger's trestle,
close one within the other when not in use. Sheard's patent combination board and trestle has recently placed all others out of date.
Paint Bench Trestles. Bench trestles, similar in construction to the first-mentioned paperhanger's trestles, but rougher and heavier, are recommended for the portable paint bench. A board constructed of four 6-feet lengths of 6-inch x 1-inch flooring, and battened at the back, forms the top. Paperhanger's boards should never be used for a paint bench, because of the danger of oil working into the paper ; neither should the provision of a proper paint bench be left to chance, but a bench such as is here described should be sent to all jobs of any size or importance.
Dust Sheets. Dust cloths or drop sheets are frequently neglected. They form a most necessary part of the painter's outfit. Rough unbleached sheeting of a coarse make, 2| yards wide, in lengths of 5 yards each will be necessary. They should be stamped with the owner s name, and sent to every job in sufficient numbers to cover up the floors and furniture. With those who care for a clean and tidy house, a sufficiency of cloths form a powerful recommendation, and no outlay on plant brings a better or more profitable return to the employer. A few narrow 1-yard wide cloths are useful for covering passages, stairs, hand-rails, Testing Scaffolding; Marking and Repainting Plant. All scaffold-poles, planks, steps, &c., must be periodically examined and tested for flaws, loose hinges, rotten cords, and similar defects. Every article should be marked anew with the full name and address of the owner, both as a safeguard against loss and as a good advertisement. They should be both branded and lettered.
The re-painting should be done at stated periods when other work is slack, and should not be overdone, as every coat of paint adds to the weight and consequent cost of handling and cartage.
Cartage. Oartage is a question which may fairly be considered in this connection. It is not possible to make any general rule for this item, as circumstances in urban, suburban, and rural districts and city centres all vary. A hand-cart or truck must of course be kept; or two, if necessary. In few town cases is it economical to keep one's own horses and carts, but in suburban or country districts a light cart is a necessity.
A valuable general principle is that apprentices or skilled workmen should not be employed in the handling or haulage of scaffolding. Labourers and horse power are cheaper and more effective. The delegation of this work to the skilled craftsman,
PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 43
though in no sense derogatory to him, inevitably lowers his standard, lessens his pride in his craft, and gradually makes him a rougher and more careless workman, besides which it is unprofitable to the employer.
Storage of Scaffolding. The storage of scaffolding is a matter that is frequently overlooked. All classes of scaffolding require putting under cover, if possible. Ladders should be well supported to keep them straight, and not be suspended by the two ends. A good plan is to form a rack with rollers, so that the sides of the ladders do not get all the paint scratched off them in getting them in and out. When ladders are hung up by one side there is a tendency to loosen the staves. Poles may be laid on the ground, and piled one upon another, but the lower ones should be kept ventilated by being raised on short cross poles or they will draw dampness from the soil. If the ladders and poles cannot be kept undercover, the next best plan is to keep them erect, safely kept in place by rails, cords, or chains. They must be quite upright with no strain on them. Planks may be set on edge, with air spaces between them, firmly supported so that they are kept straight. The outhouse in which the steps and trestles, as well as the foregoing scaffolding, are kept will be better if freely open to the air viz., with lattice sides. They must be kept dry or, when taken indoors, the joints will shrink and the wedges fall out.
Iron Eods and Tube for Scaffolding. In considering the question of scaffolding, it may be borne in mind that ordinary iron barrels (gas-piping) with the usual elbow and tee joints and sockets are very useful adjuncts; difficult bits of work may often be reached by the use of them. The writer has seen them used with considerable ingenuity in theatres and churches.
The weight sustainable by a 30 feet drop of |-inch bore iron gas-pipe, connected in the ordinary way by f-inch iron threaded sockets, is, in a vertical pull, no less than 4^ tons. Even an ordinary gaselier with f inch connection, if properly fixed, will sustain a weight of 2 tons. The knowledge of these facts is often turned to profitable account by painters who are also plumbers and gasfitters, as is usual in London suburbs and many other places. Due regard must be paid to the question of leverage, as the threads will not stand diagonal pressure in any great degree.
Small Articles. In addition to the scaffolding, very little actual plant is required except brushes, which will be dealt with in a separate chapter, but the few remaining small goods which are now enumerated are indispensable.
44 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
Buckets. As buckets for distemper, washing off, &c., ordinary 2- and 3-gallon galvanised pails or buckets are the best.
Cans or Kettles. Paint cans or kettles are made of tinned iron, galvanised iron or zinc. Of these, a large number is requisite. Zinc will scrape out easily, but will not stand paint solvents or removers. Tinned and galvanised iron can be left soaking in the pickle tub till the paint will rinse off. Three, four, five, and six, and a small number of eight-inch cans are required, the same in height as in diameter. In some parts of the country they are made bucket or tapered shape. The gain in convenience is counterbalanced by their increased liability to overturn. Some cans are made with provision for hooking to ladders for outside work, and some have a nick in the handle to keep the ladder hook in the centre.
Pots or Pans. Thumb or hand pots or pans are desirable for distemper colours, and are useful for many purposes. Ordinary red-clay or brown-clay pots, glazed on the inside, are made for this purpose, with handles at the side. Iron vessels must not be used for distemper, as they rust, but zinc ones may be used, and are extremely light and serviceable.
The pots must be thoroughly soaked in water before use, and after being well soaked, they may be used for paint ; the larger sizes are very convenient for general mixing. Pots are sometimes made with a lip to facilitate pouring. In the larger sizes this is an advantage.
Small Pots, &c. For small bits of colour, galipots, jam pots, and small tins may be accumulated ad libitum. Bottles, both of glass and sheet tin, with wide necks or with narrow ones should also be stored up for use. Odd plates, saucers, and cups are always useful in the paint shop, the former for using overgraining or glaze colours from, and the latter for using on the finger when picking out cornices and similar work. Tin handled drinking mugs are also light and extremely convenient for this work.
Stock Drums or Kegs. Drums, kegs, and varnish bottles for storage and mixing purposes may be retained instead of being returned. Many up-to-date firms now send all small quantities up to 2 gallons in free packages, so that there are always plenty of small tins available. It is better to repaint all drums that are retained, your own distinctive colour, as soon as you decide not to return them. This will prevent errors arising.
Mixing Boards. Mixing boards as a substitute for the paint stone on the jobs, and for making up tints when upon the scaffolding, may be made from f-inch pine boards, about 12 inches
PLANT AND APPLIANCES.
45
by 9 inches and 15 inches by 10 inches irrespective of handles. A handle may be left at the narrow end, making the shape like that of the back of an ordinary hair brush, with a hole through
Fig. 8. Paquelin lamp.
the handle to hang it up by when not in use. If covered thin sheet zinc they will keep clean and scrape easily.
Burning-off Lamps. For removing old paint nothing is more
with
Fig. 9. Swedish lamp.
effective than the spirit lamp, which is made in several forms. The writer prefers the "Paquelin" lamp (Fig. 8), to all others.
46
PAINTING AND DECORATING.
This lamp can be used indoors and out, and in any position is easily controlled, and the blast is strong and steady. All the working parts are renewable. It is made in different sizes, and a medium lamp burns at full blast for nearly two hours, giving a heat of 1500 degrees Fahr. The spirit used is benzoline, and the action of the blast is automatic, commencing as soon as the blast chimney is heated to the flash point of the oil.
Fig. 10. The Invincible British blow lamp (Allen's patent).
Other good lamps are the Swedish torch (Fig. 9), the Invincible CFig. 10), and the Etna, which differ in the method of producing the blast. Barthel's patent automatic is also a useful pattern.
Fig. 11. Patent strainers for paint or distemper.
Charcoal Burners. In some situations charcoal burners are useful, and several patterns are on the market. They are especially recommended for burning-off large flat surfaces.
Strainers. Strainers for both distemper and paint are requisite.
PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 47
Those with removable bottoms which allow of the gauze being readily replaced by new are the most convenient. They may be made by any tinman. Two patterns which have been tested and found useful are illustrated here. A is suitable for either paint or distemper, but the other is especially designed for paint, and the perforated bottom prevents any mishap owing to breaking away of the gauze under the weight of paint. These strainers will be found very convenient, as the gauze can be easily taken out and replaced ; the arrangements for this purpose being very handy and effective. As shown in the illustration, the clips B secure the band C, and thus firmly hold the gauze D in position. A new strainer with loose interchangeable bottoms and no under edges has been recently introduced by Mr. Bennett, of Manchester. Other sundries will be mentioned in connection with the operations with which they are used.
Fig. 12. Hamilton & Co.'s improved paint strainers.
Plant Book. The importance of a correct record of the whereabouts of plant, and the assurance of its due return to the shop, cannot be too strongly emphasized. A plant book in which each item is tabulated should have a page devoted to every job, with columns for date and enumeration. This ensures the return of each item sent out. A second book should be kept as a stock plant book, in which a page is devoted to every article, and its whereabouts clearly entered from the preceding book. The employer can then see at a glance where the particular ladders or trestles are, and judge whether they are at liberty to be fetched away and taken elsewhere.
Rough Entry or Day Book for Paint Shop. The work of transposing the entries from the rough day book to the plant book will of course be the duty of the clerk, and will not be done at the workshop, where the only book that is necessary is the rough
48 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
day book, in -which everything, plant or material, that goes out or comes in, must be set down in the order of its coming or going, for future separation and allocation in the office.
Quantity of Plant Eequired on Jobs. In sending out plant to a job a complete and sufficient quantity should be sent at once to avoid additional expense of single items going in supplementary journeys. It may be calculated that a pair of steps or a trestle will be necessary for each man sent, and a plank to each two men. For every man on an outside job one ladder will be necessary, this allows for splicing and contingencies. These suggestions are, of course, comparatively useful. A better plan is to know exactly what will be the actual requirements by a careful look round the job itself. Scaffolding must be calculated for with care and accuracy, length and number of poles, planks, number of ropes, wedges, &c., as all these items, in the absence of a correct list of requirements, may mean an unnecessary amount of haulage. Two cans, and a bucket, and a set of brushes, are the minimum allowance required for each man. A good plan is to have a printed requisition form setting forth all the items usually required, and having spaces for filling in the quantities. This saves much time and thought, and obviates the possibility of important items being left out. There must be a space left for contingencies, as there are many items that are only occasionally required which it would be useless to enumerate. A copy of this form can be filled in by the foreman or the employer when making out the estimate.
There are many additional items of plant which are required in shops where special classes of work are predominant.
7CONTRASTING ARRANGEMENTS OF PAPERHANGINGS, Tojmcep. 48.]
49
CHAPTER IV.
PAINTING BRUSHES.
RUSHES for painting are various and costly, ranging from coarse dusting brushes to those composed of the finest and rarest hair found in the animal kingdom. Various kinds of hair and bristles adapt themselves to special manipulative processes ; thus the variety used is considerable. The bristles are set in holders and handles of wood and metal of various kinds and shapes, and are held together by twine, cord, wire, metal bands, quills, and other contrivances.
Hog-hair. The principal ordinary kinds are made from hog's hair of various qualities, obtained from Russia, America, and, in lesser quantities, Germany and France. With this is mixed for the commoner brushes other less expensive substances, as horse hair, whalebone, vegetable fibre, &c.
Hog's hair is divided into grades ; the finest, used for small tools of the very best quality, is usually termed " Lyons hair," and comes from Prance. This is not available for very large and.
4
50 PAINTING AND DECORATING.
long brushes. The next quality used for best varnish and paint brushes is termed "lily hair" or "best whites." Then come "yellow " and " grey " bristles, and, finally, " black," which are the cheapest.
Various Hair used in Brushes. Brushes for fine lining, artist's work, graining and special processes, are made from a large assortment of hair ; among the most important are ox hair, or taurus hair, fitch hair, camel hair (which is not obtained from the camel now, but from the fox), bear hair, sable hair, badger hair, and others. Indeed, nearly all fur-bearing animals are laid under contribution to the cause.
Hog-hairbrushes are more freely sophisticated than any others, and they form the bulk of the whole list of brushes. The articles used for adulteration are horse hair, cow hair, whalebone, and vegetable fibre, the latter being usually the fibrous sinews of the evergreen aloe leaf, a plant found in South America, and having thick, fleshy, long, spear-like leaves.
Foreign Brushes. A large variety of hog-hair brushes are made in Germany and in America for export, and find their way into this country. Most of the bristles used in them are of fair quality and genuine hog hair ; but it is so dressed and bleached that it is not safe to assume its quality without a practical test. A large amount of care is bestowed in making these brushes presentable for the market, and practical utility is sacrificed thereby. Actual experiment proves that in wear the bristles that have been so bleached have less spring and durability than ordinary English grey brushes of similar weight.
French Brushes. French brushes are usually carelessly and clumsily made, so far as appearance goes, but in working they are excellent, and it will be found that proper allowance has been made in French brushes for swelling, wearing in, &c. They are often dipped in glue size and allowed to dry, in order to keep them in good shape till they are required for use, a proceeding that does not improve their saleable appearance, but a good one from a practical standpoint. French scene painting and distemper tools are particularly serviceable.
Methods of Fixing Hair. The method of tying or binding hoghair brushes are so varied that space will not admit of particularisation. In practice, it will be found that heavy metal ferrules are objectionable ; that for large brushes string binding is liable to get cut, to burst, or to rot ; that the method selected should offer the least possible harbour for grit, the lodgment of hard colour and water; and that it should be capable of scraping and cleaning without danger of loosening the hairs.
PAINTING BRUSHES. 51
Selection. Oare must be taken in making a selection that brushes intended for paint shall stand both turps and water without coming to pieces, as some brushes made for special purposes will not do so. Hog-hair brushes should be soft at the point, the hair being split and divided at the ends when left in their natural state. Inferior bristles are cut and trimmed up at the ends, and are thereby rendered coarse and stiff. In a well-made brush the bristles are sorted into lengths, and any irregularities are corrected by a process of grinding or scraping the bristles. The selection of brushes made from good hog-hair is not a difficult matter to a man who understands the techniqtie of painting, because he knows the qualifications of a good brush and looks for them. The most that a maker of a poor brush can do is to make it present an appearance of the real article.
Test of good Brushes. The first test of a good brush is its price. The value of hog bristles, fit for the best brushes, is about 10s. per Ib. Allowing for a margin of waste in making up, it is thus at once apparent that 8 ounces of genuine bristles in a brush, means a cost of at least 5s., plus the cost of making-up. But this is merely a negative test, because a spurious brush may be sold at a high figure.
The next test is microscopic. The horny appearance of the true bristle is thus readily distinguishable from all kinds of fibre, while its complete sectional form prevents its confusion with split whalebone or with horse hair. Next, the spring of the brush is a fairly reliable test, especially if single hairs be bent at a sharp angle and then released.
A final, and most reliable, test for fibre is to singe the hairs singly. The true bristle frizzles up and gives off an offensive odour, while the fibre burns clear and is odourless. Different hairs give off different odours, which are distinguishable with practice. Fibres leave an ash after burning, bristle leaves none.
Returning to the microscopic test a good complete bristle tapers from root to point, while horse-hair tapers much less, indeed, to any but a keen eye, it is apparently of the same thickness throughout its length.
From these remarks it will be apparent to the practical man that
